The Connection between Civilization and Individuals in...

In Civilization and Its Discontents, Sigmund Freud writes primarily to examine the relationship between the individual and society. Through Freuds examination of the relationship, a deeper understanding of the complexity of mental life is realized. Freud begins to develop the relationship early in the work by depicting the most primitive realizations of self and the most primitive realizations of the external world. He further develops this relationship through the musing of sexual desire and its connections to love, which he claims, lead to the formation of families and then later groups of humanity that came to comprise civilization as a whole. Through questions raised concerning society, culture, history and the self, Freud is able to†¦show more content†¦This fulfillment would later lead to love and the formation of families. In addition, the ego seeks not only pleasure in the fulfillment of sexual desires, but in companionship of a more plutonic nature. This form of com panionship, according to Freud, leads to the formation of civilization. Freud writes that civilization is perpetuated and developed through the internalization of natural aggressiveness, and that the repression of such aggressiveness in the interest of civilization leads to the formation of the superego and thus feelings of guilt, not only for carrying out such aggressiveness, but for musing upon it. Therefore, Freud seeks to imply that the relationship between mental life and civilization is intertwined, that they are dependent upon one another. Freuds realization that mental life and civilization are so connected helps him to achieve a deeper understanding of the complexity of mental life. He comes to conclude that the development of each, if not the same process applied to different kinds of object, then they are at the very least similar. Freuds examination of the relationship between civilization and the individual allows him to note that the individual seeks to serve itself while at the same time serving civilization, just as civilization seeks to create unity among humans while perpetuating its own self. Freud also comes to conclude through hisShow MoreRelatedFreud s Theory Of Instincts And The Individual Psyche1550 Words   |  7 PagesIn Sigmund Freud’s â€Å"Civilization and its Discontents†, we are introduced to a new outlook in the way we view our lives due to his analysis of civilization and how it has affected our happiness. Freud uses his theory of instincts in order to explain what encourages us as well as how our behavior is all linked together and is motivated by our instincts. He explains why humans seek happiness and how it is one of the toughest things to achieve. Towards the end of his book he also gives an insight onRead MoreSigmund Freud: A Very Brief Biography1582 Words   |  7 Pages INTRO Sigmund Freud is considered one of the most influential figures in modern psychology. He is best known as the father of psychoanalysis. He developed several important theories of personality, including the theories of mind, the id, the ego, and the superego, life and death instincts, psychosexual development, and defense mechanisms. He also published many books that helped shape psychology into what it is today. EARLY LIFE Sigismund Schlomo Freud was born in Moravia, Czech RepublicRead MoreFreuds Interpretation of Dreams1176 Words   |  5 Pagesfundamentals of society view on civilization and discontents, dreams, psychoanalysis and the unconscious. For this paper, I will be discussing Freud’s fundamentals of dreams, what dreams represents, how dreams are constructed and its significance while paying close attention to the following areas of dreams, manifest and latent content, condensation and displacement, and censorship and repression. First, let examined the definition of dream according to Sigmund Freud â€Å"dream is the disguised fulfilmentRead More Human Suffering: Preventing Humans From Achieving True Happiness2123 Words   |  9 Pagesachieve complete happiness? Answering this question completely is impossible because humans are very complex and each one of us has a different definition of happiness. Sigmund Freud took a different approach to the question of human happiness. In an excerpt from his book, which is titled Civilization and Its Discontents, Freud identified what he felt were the three main sources of human suffering. He says â€Å"...the three sources from which our suffering comes: the superior power of nature, the feeblenessRead MoreThe Supreme Court Decision Roe V. Wade Essay1284 Words   |  6 Pagesin our society. What is it about a woman’s right to choose that is so polarizing for so many Americans? And what keeps this social issue at the forefront decade after decade? Religion. Religious beliefs and practices influence views on abortion. Individuals with higher levels of commitment to religious groups tend to oppose abortion at higher rates than those with lower levels of commitment (Liu, 2009). According to Pew Research, 54% of White evangelical protestants believe that abortion should beRead MoreInvisible Man11097 Words   |  45 PagesPurely psych oanalytic interpretations of Invisible Man are rare, even though Ellison clearly threads the theories of at least Freud throughout his novel.(2) Because of the rarity of psychoanalytic critiques of Invisible Man, this paper will examine the character of the invisible man in the Prologue and Epilogue of Ellison s masterpiece using the theories of Sigmund Freud, Carl Gustav Jung, and Jacques Lacan. The first step in this study should be to look at previous psychoanalytic critiques ofRead MoreUsing Psychoanalysis to Understand Human Behavior Essay4081 Words   |  17 PagesPurely psychoanalytic interpretations of Invisible Man are rare, even though Ellison clearly threads the theories of at least Freud throughout his novel.(2) Because of the rarity of psychoanalytic critiques of Invisible Man, this paper will examine the character of the invisible man in the Prologue and Epilogue of Ellison’s masterpiece using the theories of Sigmund Freud, Carl Gustav Jung, and Jacques Lacan. The first step in this study should be to look at previous psychoanalytic critiques ofRead MoreFreudian Psychology: Main Ideas3015 Words   |  13 Pagesis Sigmund Freud’s work, thought to be created between 1900 and 1939, which still is a very vibrant thread in history and psychology today. According to Sigmund Freud the unconscious mind is a reservoir of repressed impulses and desires in your mind, while you may be completely awake you are still unaware of the mental processes that are taking place. Though the repressed impulses control the way we think, act, and above all feel. Freud also talks about the conflict within each individual betweenRead More Herbert Marcuse’s An Essay on Liberation3414 Words   |  14 Pageswill not occur or ought not to have occurred. Capital and proletariat have both been equally unfaithful to Marx. - Albert Camus, 1953 The validity of Marxist political theory has been seriously challenged by the realities of European civilization, both during the inter-war years and especially after WWII. The threat has been two-fold; on the one hand, was the refusal of capitalism to fail, a failure that Marxists had been predicting as immanent ever since the mid-twentieth century; on theRead MoreThe Subconscious Psychopath in American Psycho2985 Words   |  12 Pagesstate only makes our hidden savagery more apparent. The film American Psycho and philosopher Freud brings attention to examples in which the further we try to get from living like animals the more savage we become. In American Psycho, businessman Patrick Bateman is in a constant struggle to suppress his dark fantasies and put on a mask of sanity, which only leads to more frequent and elaborate fantasies. Freud also refers to many instances where his patients struggle with anxiety due to attempting to

Same Sex Marriage Should Be Legal - 2381 Words

In 2015, same-sex marriage has been ruled legal in all 50 states but that wasn’t always the case. Gay Marriage has been a conflict since the Roman Empire. In 342 AD Christian emperors Constantius and Constans issued a law in the Theodosian Code prohibiting same-sex marriage in Rome and ordering execution for those who married. Marriage existed between a male Roman and female Roman citizen, so that marriage between two Roman males (or with a slave) would have no legal standing in Roman law. In the United States, same-sex marriage is recognized by the U.S. federal government and is legal in 35 U.S. states. Most Americans live in a jurisdiction where same-sex couples can legally marry. Same-sex marriage in New York became legal in July 24, 2011. New York is the seventh state to license same-sex marriage. As an institution that has become more egalitarian and is considered to be a human right, marriage should be made available to couples regardless of gender. New York Gov. Andrew Cuomo signs a bill legalizing same-sex marriage, making the Empire State the sixth in the nation to allow gay and lesbian couples to wed, in 2009. In 2012, Barack Obama becomes the first sitting president to announce his support for same-sex marriage. Voters in Maine, Maryland and Washington state approve laws legalizing same-sex marriage, becoming the first states to do so through popular votes. In 2013, The Supreme Court strikes down part of the federal Defense of Marriage Act, requiring theShow MoreRelatedSame Sex Marriage Should Be Legal1288 Words   |  6 Pages Marriage is not precisely the same as it used to be interpreted. For example, women used to be their husband’s property. Sometimes the women were forced to marry whoever their parents wanted them to marry and most of the time they couldn’t leave the marriage. Nowadays women have more freedom. They can vote, they can run their own business, and they can marry whichever man they want to. The laws change as the people’s mind change. As they get more comfortable with the idea, they become more openRead MoreSame Sex Marriage Should Be Legal Essay14 75 Words   |  6 PagesSame sex relationships relate to when a man or woman are attracted to someone of the same gender of themselves. It is being rejected as same gender marriage denies the obvious purpose between a man and a women which is procreation (Richardson-Self, 2012). Denying same sex couples the legal right to get married, could mean that they are being denied their basic human rights to enjoy human benefits (Richardson-Self, 2012). However, the opposing view is that if gay marriage was granted the legal rightsRead MoreSame Sex Marriage Should Be Legal1403 Words   |  6 PagesSame-Sex Marriage â€Å"I now pronounce you†¦Ã¢â‚¬  At some point in a person’s life, they have heard or will hear those words. What follows, however, has changed somewhat over the years; although, the commitment has remained the same. Those words historically indicate that until the death of a spouse, that couple shall remain together. Who should be able to determine whom that spouse is for that person? Some people judge others for their sexuality and how it is affecting them, but they never stop andRead MoreSame Sex Marriage Should Be Legal1144 Words   |  5 PagesGay Marriage There are many issues the revolve around same-sex marriage. Many issues like: Whether same-sex should be legalized and should there be an amendment on same-sex marriage? There are multiple side to view this, but gay marriage but in my opinion gay marriage is socially accepted. it should be legal and it does affect American teens in a broad spectrum of ways. There have been a lot of issues on whether or not same-sex marriage should be legal or not. According to Burns, â€Å" The unionRead MoreSame Sex Marriage Should Be Legal998 Words   |  4 PagesSame sex marriage ought to be legalized on the grounds that it is uncivilized and unmerited. Marriage is a commitment between two people that cherish one another. In almost every country and culture, marriage is a commitment of loyalty and love. Marriage is an authority contract gathering two individuals together, furnishing them with profits of holy matrimony such as tax cuts and clinical privileges. The debate throughout most countries today is whether or not the rights of these profits and commitmentsRead MoreSame Sex Marriage Should Be Legal1659 Words   |  7 Pages Same-sex couples can hardly remember a time where they were not fighting for their right to marriage in the United States. After several court cases, California Proposition Six, and their struggle against the Defens e of Marriage Act (DOMA), same-sex couples found their way into U.S. society. Many misguided studies appealed to those opposing same-sex marriage, but after several years of integrating in society, same-sex couples found the support they were looking for. Before the Supreme CourtRead MoreSame Sex Marriage Should Be Legal899 Words   |  4 Pages In the United States, same sex marriage became legal nationwide on June 26, 2015, when the United States Supreme Court overruled the court in favor of same sex freedom and marriage. The victory of same sex marriage came to be recognized from the Obergefell v. Hodges case which was submitted when an American Ohio man was denied and regretted to get his name on his late husband’s death certificate. Same sex marriage has been a controversial social issue in the United States for several decades. SinceRead MoreSame Sex Marriage Should Be Legal1491 Words   |  6 PagesSame sex marriage is one of the most debatable issues in the modern world. Marriage has been accepted as the social union between a man and a woman for the past thousand years. Homosexuality was viewed with scorn, and marriages among same sex couples were prohibited in most cultures across the globe. However, gay relationships are slowly obtaining acceptance, as homosexuals have come to be expressive in fighting their rights to marry in the early 90’s. As homosexuality grows in acceptance in theRead MoreSame Sex Marriage Should Be Legal892 Words   |  4 PagesLove Same sex marriage is now allowed in all states across the country. But it took years and years for this â€Å"issue† to be finally laid to rest. The first state to legalize same-sex marriage was Massachusetts in 2004. There was not a last state to legalize gay marriage. The supreme court realized how many states were now legalizing it, so they just had all of the states left legalize it as well. ProCon.org supplies information that â€Å"Twenty-six states were forced to legalize gay marriage becauseRead MoreSame Sex Marriage Should Be Legal2253 Words   |  10 Pages1776). The recognition of same-sex marriage is an issue influenced by numerous factors, and debates continue to arise over whether people in same-sex relationships have the right to marriage. Marriage provides many benefits, legally, financially, and personally. Same-sex marriage can open up those in same-sex relationships to tax benefits and financial demands comparable to those afforded to and required of peo ple in opposite-sex marriages. Same-sex marriage also gives them legal protections, such as

Personal and Community Health

Question: Explain the Influences on personal and community health and well-being. Answer: Heath-promoting personal activities will identify the common issues and challenges associated with public health campaigns. Therefore, significant health and well-being programmes can promote responsibility and accountability to the social public to inspire more health activities and promotional works. Significantly, the understanding of the challenges can create further enthusiasm among the social community to play active roles in health and well-being promotions. Health and related social justice issues There are some health and related social justice issues to be critically understood through practical activities. For instance, child care facilities, women care facilities and care of old people must follow significant regulations and ethical consideration. The use of significant drugs in healthcare system will be critical in this regard. Also, public health should be promoted before money in the health care system. Meanwhile, health organisations must sort out monetary benefits from the system to concentrate more on public health. Application Participation, interpersonal, practical, and group skills to an area related to health In case of health related activities, participation is truly essential for health and well-being of social people. By identifying the existing issues and problems, individuals can create campaigns and training programmes to improve the condition. Also, for better result proper interpersonal activities are mandatory. In case of practical skills, for social healthcare activities, significant management ideas and decision-making skills are essential. In addition to that, group skills are also necessary to reflect the overall ideas to the other community people for better public health measures. Health literacy skills to relevant tasks By identifying the social culture and economic contexts of a society, significant health information and services system can be developed so that social public can utilise appropriate health information for better lifestyle. By promoting health communication programmes from the governments end, public health and awareness can be delivered among the social demographics. The health literacy skills will encourage the public to gather more knowledge on health facilities available in the healthcare system. Personal and social actions to promote improved health outcomes for individuals and communities In order to promote improved health outcomes specific for societal benefits, health awareness campaigns will be the crucial point to improvise any public health and well-being message to the rest of the community. Therefore, individuals and famous social activists should come forward and explain the people about the benefits of health awareness campaigns. Also, donation and charity programmes must be created with the help of local public to raise massive funds for cancer patients and child care facilities. Critical Analysis and Evaluation Personal and social actions to promote improved health outcomes for individuals and communities Social people should step forward and involve in health promotion activities on a regular basis. Whether it will be drug awareness programme or blood donation programme, social public must come forward to join health movements. In case of promoting child care, donation and charity functions can be organised to achieve the overall health-promoting goals and social health and well-being. In this way, personally individuals can help to promote public health for better futuristic outcome. Conclusion At the end of the discussion, it can be said that practical activities will certainly build up significant health strategies among the social people for better health promotions. By identifying the issues and challenges on health, health literacy programmes can enhance the knowledge and communication among the social people and health services. In this way, promotion of health awareness can create a positive effect on social health measures. References Carvalho, C Y Solomon, "Supporting statistical literacy: What do culturally relevant/realistic tasks show us about the nature of pupil engagement with statistics?". inInternational Journal of Educational Research, 55, 2012, 57-65. Clarke, S, L Oades, T Crowe, P Caputi, F Deane, "The role of symptom distress and goal attainment in promoting aspects of psychological recovery for consumers with enduring mental illness". inJournal of Mental Health, 18, 2009, 389-397. Kim, A, "Religious Influences on Personal and Societal Well-being". inSocial Indicators Research, 62/63, 2013, 149-170. Martinez, R, "Promoting Physical Activity Through Goal Setting Strategies". inStrategies, 17, 2014, 25-26. Wheeler, D H Goodman, "Health and Mental Health Social Workers Need Information Literacy Skills". inHealth Social Work, 32, 2007, 235-237. Zahnd, W, "Health Literacy Skills in Rural and Urban Populations". inajhb, 33, 2009. Zschaebitz, E D Gordon, "Appalachian Health and Well-Being". inFamily Community Health, 36, 2013, 89-90.

Othello Tragism Essays - Othello, English-language Films

Othello Tragism William Shakespeare's "Othello" presents all of the elements of a great tragedy, according to Aristotle's definition: "A tragedy is the imitation in dramatic form of an action that is serious and complete, with incidents arousing pity and fear wherewith it effects a catharsis of such emotions" (Poetics 14) He also adds, "The language used is pleasurable and throughout, appropriate to the situation in which it is used." The central features of the Aristotelian archetype are manifested in General Othello's character. Although Othello is great, he is not perfect. He has a tragic flaw, hubris (excessive pride and passion), and hamartia (some error), which lead to his downfall. However, Othello's misfortune is not wholly deserved. His punishment exceeds the crime, keeping him admirable in the theatergoer's eyes. Before Othello's tragic flaw results in his unfortunate death, he has increased awareness and gained self-knowledge or, as Aristotle describes it "has experienced a discovery." (Poetics 15) All of this produces a catharsis or emotional release at the end of the play. A tragedy, when well performed, does not leave an audience in a state of depression but creates a shared, common experience. What causes Othello's downfall? Some critics claim that Othello's tragic flaw is his jealousy while others insist that jealousy is not part of his character, that the emotion takes over only when Iago pushes him to the brink of insanity. Evidence in the play supports the notion of insanity. Othello doesn't show himself to be jealous early in the play. It is not until Othello is manipulated by Iago's skillful lies that he is forced to confront his jealousy and mistrust. His love and trust of Iago serve to prove his gullibility, Jealousy and self-doubt poison his sensibilities and innocence, and the realization of his blind trust leads to his sorrowful end. As with most of Shakespeare's tragic heroes, Othello possesses all the virtues prescribed for the character type. He is of noble birth; he is self-controlled; he is religious; he has the respect of his men; and he demonstrates excellent leadership. His magnetism is what draws Venetian senators and soldiers alike and what captivates Desdemona. All of this supports the idea that he is not (at the play's opening) a jealous, enraged, or mad man. He has convincing self-esteem which he later loses to the deception of Iago's evil ploy. It can be noted that Othello's character flaw is his blind trust and naivet?. These character traits contribute to his misled downfall. It would be neglectful, if not irresponsible, to overlook Iago's role in the play. His hate for Othello and Cassio drives his evil motive through a string of lies affecting the entire cast. From the first act, the antagonist is troubled: I know my price, I am worth no worse a place. But he (as loving his own pride and purposes) Evades them with a bumbast circumstance Horribly stuff'd epithites of war, [And in conclusion,] Nonsuits my mediators; for, "Certes," says he, "I have already chose my officer." And what was he? Forsooth, a great arithmetician, One Michael Cassio, a Florentine (A fellow almost damn'd in a fair wife), That never set a squadron in the field, Nor the division of a battle knows (Othello. I.i.11-23) Iago never reveals his dissatisfaction with the military arrangement to Othello. Instead, he makes use of Othello's innocence and trust to satisfy his wicked end. He constantly boasts of his love for Othello and patronizes him regularly throughout the play. At Iago's first attempt to instill jealousy in the trusting Othello, he is successful. Othello's concern at Iago's implications entices him to learn more. Iago plays a verbal game with Othello to arouse suspicion. This piques Othello's interest and starts his mind to wonder. Iago is successful at the point he proclaims, O, beware, my lord, of jealousy! It is the green-ey'd monster which doth mock The meat it feeds on. That cuckold lives in bliss Who, certain of his fate, loves not his wronger; But O, what damned minutes tells he o'er Who dotes, yet doubts; suspects, yet [strongly] loves! (Othello. III.iii.163-168) One of the major qualities that comes to mind when assessing Othello is his trustfulness. He claims that Iago is a man of honesty and trust; "To his conveyance I assign my wife" (I.iii.286). Othello has no reason to distrust Iago at this point. Time after time, Othello fails to see through Iago's deceptions. Iago is a military man; Othello is familiar dealing with soldiers and men he trusts and, moreover, Iago has a widespread reputation for honesty. Othello

Intercultural Communication

Intercultural Communication Free Online Research Papers The success of personal and professional relationships depends on the effectiveness of intercultural communication. Working with customers and partners from different cultures can be challenging and requires a great deal of skill. Intercultural expertise minimizes the possible risks when involved in international affairs. The inability to communicate between cultures can result in embarrassment, confusion, and offense. Intercultural Communication occurs between individuals with different cultural backgrounds. Cultural differences are reflected in various ways. Verbal language, body language, gestures, and phrases can take several meanings between many cultures. Research concludes facial expressions displaying emotions are universal but rules on the use of the expressions differ. (Kazdin) Intercultural conflict usually results from miscommunication or misunderstanding, which is why intercultural communication skills are important. This paper will attempt describe a scenario where intercultural communication causes conflict or confusion and offer strategies to avoid future conflicts. Description of the Communication Issue John, a New Orleans native, is relocated after Hurricane Katrina. He is new to the city of Houston, Texas, and Patricia is the first person he meets. Despite John’s strong accent strange use of words, she thought he was a nice guy. Patricia had to ask him to repeat things more that once and noticed that he referred to the sidewalk as a banquet (ban-ket), and he wanted to know what the hamburger at McDonald’s was dressed with. Patricia had also heard a great deal about New Orleans’ culture and was interested in learning more. John asked Patricia where she stayed. She didn’t understand, so he rephrased the question asking where she lived. The two exchanged numbers and Patricia promised to show him around the city the following day. John asked Patricia if it would be inappropriate to call her that evening. Patricia gave John permission to do so because she was truly interested in John’s conversation. John gives Patricia a call and when she answers, he says â€Å"Good night.† She is confused, but responds, â€Å"I hope you have a good night, also. I guess I will talk to you tomorrow.† Patricia then hangs up the phone. John is puzzled now, because he was calling to continue the previous conversation the two were engaged in. John then wonders whether he called too late or if Patricia was interested in talking to him, and he was unsure whether he should call Patricia again. Patricia wonders why John only called to say good night, but she thought it was a nice gesture. Diagnosis John, having grown up in New Orleans, uses the phrase, â€Å"Good night,† as a greeting. John was unaware that by saying this to someone in Houston, the person would assume he was saying good-bye. Patricia was familiar with the term being used as a conversation ending and didn’t understand John’s intentions. Patricia was not aware of sayings and terms used in New Orleans, on John didn’t know that such saying took on totally different meanings when used elsewhere. Communication is expressed through a person’s cultural background, therefore, differs among individuals. Through communication, ethnic, social, and professional identities are reflected. A person’s identity is more that how a person is label, but how the person acts and reacts in the presence of like and unlike individuals. Ineffectively communicating in intercultural situations can be damaging to relationship building. Cultures have different conceptions and ideas of what is appropriate. Body language and personal space must also be considered. Language is the most important element in intercultural communication and the use of language determines the effectiveness. Proficiency is an important factor when communication occurs between two people of different cultural backgrounds. Trust, awareness, respect, and honesty are needed to develop the necessary skills to communicate cross-culturally. Competence is not something that can be learned easily, competence is a process that requires practice and patience. Whether a potential customer or friend, communication plays a role in the fate of the relationship. â€Å"Constructive and destructive intercultural conflict management depends on many factors. One of the key factors is the ability to apply flexible communication skills in managing both culture-based and individual-based differences. Constructive intercultural conflict management is defined as the use of culture-sensitive communication skills to manage the process of conflict productively and reach important goals of all parties amicably. By contrast, destructive conflict means the parties are engaging in inflexible thinking and inflexible conflict patterns that lock them into prolonged cycles of defensiveness and mutual dissatisfaction leading to escalation or total impasse.†(Ting-Toomey, 1999) Resolution of conflict requires that parties are mindful is the contribution of a different approach. Parties must also share a common goal and be willing to experiment with conflict management skills. Improvement Strategies Avoiding broad and stereotypical statements is an important strategy in avoiding intercultural communication conflict. One should never assume that the thought and actions of all members of a cultural group will be the same. Use of racial or cultural stereotypes can possibly offend members of that race or culture. Ethnic humor is also unacceptable because this can be viewed as prejudice or discrimination. One must also be aware that sayings, phrases, and statements differ in cultures, even if he or she is not familiar with the different meanings. Individuals should listen attentively, still if disagreement arises, and pay attention to gestures, tones, movements, and other forms of communication. In a diverse, multicultural society, citizens need to be sensitive and knowledgeable about linguistic and cultural differences.(Kottak Kozaitis, 2003) By increasing awareness about different ethnic or linguistic backgrounds, the chance of offending or making someone feel discriminated decreases. Although most Americans speak English, the language is not always spoken to the same extent so careful consideration must be taken when communicating with others of different cultural backgrounds. Effective communication is the key element in building successful personal or professional relationships. Developing the skill needed to communicate with people from different cultural backgrounds can be a difficult task. Learning to communicate effectively with people from different cultures can help one to avoid conflict, confusion, and embarrassment. References Answers.com. Retrieved April 5, 2009, from answers.com/topic/cross-cultural Encyclopedia of psychology, Vol. 2. Kazdin, Alan E. (Ed); pp. 357-359. Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association; New York, NY, US: Oxford University Press. 502 pp. Gumbo Pages (n.d.). A lexicon of New Orleans terminology and speech. Retrieved April 5, 2009, from gumbopages.com/ Harvey, M., Griffith, D. (2002). Developing effective intercultural relationships: The importance of communication strategies. Thunderbird International Business Review, 44(4), 455-476. doi: 10.1002/tic.10029. Kottak, C.P., Kozaitis, K.A. (2003). On Being Different: Diversity and Muticulturalism in the North American Mainstream (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw Hill. The Daily Resource for Entrepreneurs (2009). Inc.. Retrieved April 3, 2009, from inc.com/encyclopedia/intercultural-communication.html The Mid-Atlantic Equity Consortium (). Using cross-cultural communication to improve relationships. Retrieved April 5, 2009, from maec.org/ Ting-Toomey, S. (1998). Communicating across cultures. New York: Guilford Press. Research Papers on Intercultural CommunicationAnalysis Of A Cosmetics AdvertisementHip-Hop is Art19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenHonest Iagos Truth through DeceptionRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andThree Concepts of PsychodynamicIncorporating Risk and Uncertainty Factor in CapitalCapital PunishmentNever Been Kicked Out of a Place This Nice

Evolution Labs - Coacervates Lab

Evolution Labs - Coacervates Lab Coacervates are a life-like creation that prove that life may have formed from simple organic substances under the right conditions that eventually led to the formation of prokaryotes. Sometimes called protocells, these coacervates mimic life by creating vacuoles and movement. All it takes to create these coacervates is protein, carbohydrates, and an adjusted pH. This is easily done in the lab and then the coacervates can be studied under a microscope to observe their life-like properties. Materials: goggleslab coats or protective covering for clothescompound light microscopemicroscope slidescoverslipstest tube racksmall culture tubes (one tube per student)rubber stopper or cap that fits the culture tubeone medicine dropper per tube0.1M HCl solutionpH papercoacervate mix Making the coacervate mix: Mix 5 parts of 1% gelatin solution with 3 parts 1% gum acacia solution on the day of the lab (the 1% solutions can be made up ahead of time). Gelatin can be purchased at either the grocery store or a science supply company. Gum acacia is very affordable and can be bought from some science supply companies. Procedure: Put on the goggles and lab coats for safety. There is acid used in this lab, so extra precautions should be taken when working with the chemicals.Use good lab practices when setting up the microscope. Make sure the microscope slide and coverslip are clean and ready for use.Obtain a clean culture tube and a test tube rack to hold it. Fill up the culture tube about half way with the coacervate mix which is a combination of 5 parts gelatin (a protein) to 3 parts gum acacia (a carbohydrate).Use a dropper to put a drop of the mix onto a piece of pH paper and record the initial pH.Add a drop of acid to the tube and then cover the end of the tube with a rubber stopper (or culture tube cap) and invert the entire tube once to mix. If this is done properly, it will turn somewhat cloudy. If the cloudiness disappears, add another drop of acid and invert the tube once again to mix. Continue adding drops of acid until the cloudiness stays. Most likely, this will not take more than 3 drops. If it t akes more than that, check to be sure you have the right concentration of acid. When it stays cloudy, check the pH by putting a drop on pH paper and record the pH. Place a drop of the cloudy coacervate mix on a slide. Cover the mix with a coverslip, and search under low power for your sample. It should look like clear, round bubbles with smaller bubbles inside. If you are having trouble finding your coacervates, try adjusting the light of the microscope.Switch the microscope to high power. Draw a typical coacervate.Add three more drops of acid, one at a time, inverting the tube to mix after each single drop. Take a drop of the new mix and test its pH by putting it on the pH paper.After washing your original coacervates off of your microscope slide (and the coverslip, too), put a drop of the new mix on the slide and cover with the coverslip.Find a new coacervate on low power of your microscope, then switch to high power and draw it on your paper.Be careful with clean up of this lab. Follow all safety procedures for working with acid when cleaning. Critical Thinking Questions: Compare and contrast the materials you used in this lab to create coacervates to the supposed materials available on the ancient Earth.At what pH did the coacervate droplets form? What does this tell you about the acidity of the ancient oceans (if it is assumed this is how life formed)?What happened to the coacervates after you added the extra drops of acid? Hypothesize how you could get the original coacervates to come back into your solution.Is there a way coacervates may be more visible when looking through a microscope? Create a controlled experiment to test your hypothesis. Lab adapted from original procedure by the University of Indiana

Sociological Philosophy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Sociological Philosophy - Essay Example Plato suggests powers exercised by a ruler are governed by customary and community rules. Decisions are made by the minds of the rulers and their delegates. Humans have some innate knowledge of what is important and good in human life and because of this, we should not be constrained by laws and rules but by what our minds tell us what is right and just in the circumstances. The laws do not expressly provide on how to deal with this specific situation and judgment must then be made on moral principles. Permanent laws are incompatible with changing demographics and technology. Laws must change at the same pace with the rest of society to maintain society's current perspective of justice and righteousness, but time delays in passing laws precludes this. Still now, the public waits for tougher dog laws to be passed on pit bulls and others alike. Even worse, there is no guarantee administration will be efficient. Here, Plato argues, rules fail to meet the differences of time and there is a need for rulers to exercise discretion as it encourages efficiency. Where rules fail to take into account of specific, exceptional cases, Aristotle claims, equity should apply. Judges should correct errors of the law, rising from oversight by the lawmakers, given there are rules to be corrected in the first place. This is therefore, an argument to being ruled by laws. He favours rule by democracy where government by a collective of good men is better than being ruled by an absolute king. Decisions ought to be made by a democratically-elected assembly. Unlike Plato's idea of 'permanence', offices and positions will be rotated; enforcing the idea that everyone is equal and everyone should both rule and be ruled. The practice of using legal precepts to decide disputes was criticized by American Legal Realists as either redundant or pernicious. Disputes, it is said, should be decided justly. Where legal precepts dictate the same outcome as that of justice, and then legal precepts are redundant--acting justly will achieve the same results as following the precept. Where legal precepts recommend a different result than that recommended by justice then following the rules are pernicious. The result is, in the words of Jerome Frank, "injustice is according to law." (Frank, 1936) Most people are of a similar opinion when confronted with what appears to be the "unjust" application of a rule to a particular situation. One assumption underlying this objection is that, because they are formulated before a dispute arises, legal precepts cannot take into account the specific facts of a dispute that may argue in favour of a different "just" result than that recommended by the legal precept. Only after the fact can we know enough about the actual dispute to do real justice between the parties. As Frank argued, The judge, at his best is an arbitrator, a "sound man" who strives to do justice to the parties by exercising a wise discretion with reference to the peculiar circumstances of the case. He does not merely "find" or invent some generalized rule which he "applies" to the facts presented to him. He does "equity" in the sense in which Aristotle--when thinking most clearly--described it. "It is equity," he wrote in his Rhetoric, "to

Food Allergys Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Food Allergys - Essay Example Family background and age seem to be known causes of certain allergies. Hay fever, asthma, hives and eczema can be traced back to specific family backgrounds. While allergies such as milk, soy, wheat and eggs are considered to be more age related and occur mostly in children. In adults, food allergies are most commonly connected with the ingestion of peanuts, fish and shellfish. Recent studies also suggest that an immune system defect may also cause food allergies. Dr. Claudio Nicoletti of the Institute of Food Research in the United Kingdom believes that an allergy happens in 2 stages. He explains that "There are two stages to food allergy. The first is sensitisation, when the immune system starts producing an antibody in response to eating a food. The second is when that food is eaten for a second time, triggering an allergic reaction. We have identified an immune response malfunction that occurs in the sensitisation stage, which could provide a target for future therapies," (qtd. in FoodQuality news.com) Food Allergies are estimated to occur in 6 to 8 percent of infants and young children. A number of these children outgrow their Food Allergies over the first three to five years of life.

Effects of Mass Media Essay Example for Free

Effects of Mass Media Essay The benefits that the society gets from mass media have undeniably led to the heavy reliance of people to media for information and entertainment. While the society perceives the media information as either real or important, the media shapes the values and culture of people into an entirely new concept that always end up to the conclusion that the world has been changing because of advancement in terms of technology. From selling goods to giving salient issues, the people can rely on the power of mass media. The heavy reliance of society to media may had been evident in the lifestyle of the mainstream; however, the information that the society keeps nowadays constantly change, molding the psychological and sociological aspects of the next generation. Mass media plays a very important role in the society. The people have been relying on the capability of media to inform, entertain, and provide all the necessary information that the individuals need. The people cannot deny the benefits that they gain from media for different purposes. In fact, its influences in the society have been evident not only through the development of the world in terms of technology but also through the culture and perceptions that the people have nowadays. Media exposures show that media consumption has measurable effects on the perceptions of the society. The people use media information and their actions, judgments, and attitudes are unconsciously being affected by the media messages. The society has been showing too many evidences of media effects; however, the people seem to recognize the benefits of media sources more rather than the negative impacts that it brings to the public. Each media concept has a target audience and the effects vary depending on the level of involvement of the audience and the status of a certain cluster in the society. Apparently, the modern media has been targeting the cluster of the society which can easily be reached and influenced—the young generation. Due to continuous release of media concepts and endless influx of technology, does media still portray images that would help for the betterment of the young adults? What are the negative effects of media concepts to the young generation? Media Images in 20th Century As the world conforms to modernity, the media images have been constantly changing giving the people new ideas and information in fashion trends, technology, and current events. The media sources keep on providing information and the people stay connected with the media information not only to be updated with the changes but because of the availability of resources that would connect the people and the media regardless of their location. Today, media is far different from the media that people have known in the past century. The television shows are more advanced and the films and advertisements show evidences of development in terms of media tools and concepts. Consequently, the society get use to seeing new concepts everyday and the post modern world leave the people with no choice but to conform in order to survive. Even though the society has been criticizing the media for the offensive images that media portrays, the mainstream still relies on the information that media could provide for them. Media sources boomed not only for entertainment but also for commercial purposes in twentieth century. From business to entertainment, the media has been the source of information of any cluster of the society. Today, the young generation can be seen on media sources endorsing consumer goods or promoting services to the society. While some teens appear to be wholesome, some are being criticized for negative underlying messages to the mainstream. Some media sources portray the fun of being a teenager in this modern society and some messages convey a message that the young adults are the hope of the future generation. On the contrary, there are films and television shows that portray aggression and violence. The advertisements portray images of thin and skinny young women who endorse products to the market. The modern youth are being perceived as materialistic, socially aggressive, and partying individuals because of the images that the mainstream sees on media sources. Positive Impacts of Mass Media on Teens The society has been blaming the mass media for making the young adults change their perceptions toward certain matter and behave exactly opposite of how people expect them to be. The society recalls the images that they have seen on media sources which are often considered as negative due to the effects that these portrayals brought to them. Apparently, the effects of mass media have been in the heart of debate in the society because most people perceive media in negative aspect while some still consider the benefits that the society gets from it. Due to negative images on media, the society often fails to recognize the positive effects that media can give to the public. Although some parents perceive television as helpful in developing the mind of their children, the society on the other hand, points out this perception as effect of media brainwashing. The heavy reliance of people on media has been the effect of the society’s acceptance to all the messages that are being conveyed on all media sources.

Sampling Methods Essays -- Statistics

Sampling is the framework on which any form of research is carried out. A suitable sample that meets the inclusion and exclusion criteria of a research design must be chosen from a given population to carry out studies. In this essay comparison is made between stratified random sampling and convenience sampling. The population on which the researcher is interested in carrying out his or her research may be too large, therefore a suitable sample which can represent the population in correct proportion must be chosen. Restraints such as limitation of time, resources and many other factors necessitate the selection of a sample for research purpose so that better quality data is obtained from it and that the researcher can make statement about the population he or she is interested in (French,S et al.,2001,).The method of sampling should be cost effective, less time consuming and be simple in design to attract participants but care should be taken that accurate and valid data can be col lected. The sample on which the study is actually done is derived from the population which is accessible to the researcher; the study sample may include all of the accessible population or a fraction of it and this accessible population is a part of the target population. The target population is the collection of cases to which generalization can be made and on which the researcher is ultimately interested in (Sim,J and Wright,C. 2000). Hence the entire process of collection of samples for the indented study can be termed as sampling. Sampling is broadly divided into probability sampling; in which the selection of samples are done at random and non- probability sampling; where selection of samples is entirely dependent on the researcher’s choice and ... ...ana, M., (1997). Research for the health professional: A practical guide. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis. Bowling, A., (2001). Research methods in health: Investigating health and health services. 2nd ed. Berkshire: Open University press. Buddhakulsomsiri, J. Parthanadee, P.,(2008).Stratified random sampling for estimating billing accuracy in health care system. Health care management science, vol.11 (1), pp.41-54. Available through:medline(accessed 25 0ct 2010). French, S. Reynolds, F. Swain, J., (2001). Practical research: A guide for therapist. 2nd ed. Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann. Portney, L, G. Watkins, M, P.,( 2009). Foundation of clinical research: Application to practice. 3rd ed. Upper saddle River, N.J: Pearson prentice hall. Sim, j. Wright, C.,( 2000). Research in health care: Concepts, Design and Methods. Cheltenham: Stanley thrones (publisher) Ltd.

Behavioural Approach

BEHAVIORISM Fred Luthans, James B. Avey and Brett Luthans Definition Behaviorism is a theoretical foundation with roots in psychology with an intentional focus on observable, measurable behavior as the primary unit of analysis (Luthans, Youssef, & Luthans, 2005). Behaviorism systematically analyzes the relationships between an individual’s behavior and environmental contingencies. The study and practice of behaviorism emphasizes predicting and controlling/managing behavior and thus is especially relevant to organization studies.The behaviorism paradigm is in contrast to the popular cognitive psychology theories in that behaviorism is not focused on internal cognitive or affective processes or indirect measures of beliefs, attitudes or feelings. Whereas cognitive based approaches attempt to understand and explain the multifaceted causes and complexity of human behavior, behaviorism is based on the premise that behavior is a function of its environmental consequences or continge ncies (also see Motivation, Contingency Theory).There are four primary historical building blocks of behaviorism. These major foundational contributions are Pavlov’s (1849-1936) classical conditioning experiments, Thorndike’s (1874-1949) law of effect, Watson’s (1878-1958) experiments with human conditioning, and Skinner’s (1904-1990) work and conceptualization of operant conditioning (also see Operant Conditioning). However, applied to organization studies, the most influential application of behaviorism would be Luthans and Kreitner’s (1985) book Organizational Behavior Modification and Beyond.Conceptual Overview Have you ever wondered how children, adults, and even animals learn to respond to and operate in their world? Early in the twentieth century, Thorndike coined the famous law of effect by systematically studying cats in a puzzle box. Thorndike’s law of effect states behaviors followed by positive consequences tend to be strengthene d and increase in subsequent frequency, while those followed by negative consequences tend to weaken and decrease in frequency.Even before Thorndike established the law of effect, a Russian scientist named Ivan Pavlov conditioned several dogs to salivate to the sound of a ringing bell. Originally the bell was sounded with the presentation of food (meat powder, positive consequence) and ultimately the dog’s salivation was in accordance with the bell regardless of food presentation (Pavlov highlighted the stimulus-response phenomenon).In a logical progression, Watson applied the behavioral conditioning mechanism to humans when he conditioned the subject â€Å"little Albert† to fear white rats by associating them with a loud, unpleasant noise (negative consequence). In the 1930’s the famous psychologist B. F. Skinner made a significant discovery for modern behaviorism that led to the modern practice of organizational behavior modification. Using rats and pigeons in controlled environments, his studies found that the consequences of behavior were influential in determining, predicting and controlling that behavior.Skinner highlighted the important distinction between respondent conditioning (Pavlovian S-R connection) where the stimuli elicit the behavior and operant conditioning (the organism operates on the environment in order to obtain the desired consequence, or the R-S connection) where the behavior is a function of the consequence. Skinner’s operant conditioning with the focus on environmental consequences as behavioral determinants instead of antecedent stimuli led to the underlying core premise of modern behaviorism.Based on this scientific foundation, the study of behaviorism suggests that we can predict and modify behavior by strategically controlling (i. e. , managing) the consequences. This well-known practice of managing behavioral contingencies has become known as â€Å"behavior modification. † Modern behaviorism an d behavior modification has been applied to organization studies and performance management in the workplace by Luthans and Kreitner (1985) as â€Å"organizational behavior modification,† or simply O. B.Mod (Luthans and Kreitner, 1985 for a full review) (also see Classical Management, Organizational Behavior). The O. B. Mod. approach to performance management involves five sequential steps: (1) identify critical performance-related behaviors; (2) measure the frequency of those identified behaviors; (3) analyze the antecedents and consequences associated with the behavior within the existing environment; (4) intervene by applying positive consequences/reinforcers contingent upon exhibiting the desired behavior; and (5) evaluate the results by measuring changes in the behavior and its impact on performance.In over 30 years of multiple research studies and applications of this O. B. Mod. approach, Luthans and colleagues ( Stajkovic & Luthans, 1997, 2003), and other behavioral ma nagement scholars have been able to reach consistent, conclusive findings. First, three types of positive consequences/reinforcers result in an increase of desired work related behaviors and performance outcomes when administered contingently. These are: money, performance feedback, and social recognition (Luthans & Stajkovic, 1999).A major finding for managing organizations is that in many cases feedback and/ or recognition, which typically involve no direct cost, often results in similar (and sometimes higher) performance outcomes than monetary reinforcers that are often outside a manager’s direct control. Luthans and colleagues offer guidelines for use of these reinforcers. For example, effective performance feedback must be positive (emphasizing what is right), immediately following the desired behavior, graphic, and specific.Effective social recognition must include personal one-on-one attention and appreciation from the manager communicating to the employee that the des ired behavior has been noticed and admired by the manager versus a standard program where randomly selected employees are recognized regardless of demonstration of desired behaviors (which is what many of the formal recognition programs become over time). Positively reinforcing desired behaviors is significantly more effective in terms of performance impact over time than punishing undesired behaviors.It is important to note that punishment may be necessary when there is a need to immediately cease potentially harmful behavior. For example, in the case of a workplace safety violation (e. g. not wearing a helmet or eye protectors on a construction site), the behavioral management approach would not take time to measure the outcomes and wait for the desired safe behavior to occur in order to administer positive reinforcement. However, in general, the potential long term harm of punishment (e. g. stress, burnout, revenge, turnover, decrease in commitment) may be more than its potential benefits.It is important to point out that behavioral management works across various organizational types, industries, and cultures (Luthans & Stajkovic, 1999). For example, the behavioral management technique has been successfully employed in a Russian factory, where it demonstrated stronger performance outcomes than the participative management technique (Welsh, Luthans, & Sommer, 1993) and most recently with Korean information service providers. Critical Commentary and Future Directions The contributions of behaviorism in general, and more specifically the O.B. Mod. approach to behavioral management, have been very positive in organizational studies. Behaviorism provides understanding of how we learn, operate, and perform in all types of organizations. Organizations achieve their missions, visions, goals, and competitive advantage through the performance and behavior of people. A meta-analysis shows that the application of the O. B. Mod. model in the workplace across multiple i ndustries, levels, and cultures increased performance on average 17 percent (Stajkovic & Luthans, 1997).Despite the overwhelming support of how well behaviorism works in the organization, several limitations to the technique must be highlighted. First, individuals are unique and thus not all people respond the same way to reinforcers. Their desires are not only different, but they may also change over time. However, this is not a major problem when applying O. B. Mod. in the workplace because people in general desire money, feedback and recognition. However, they may vary in the level of intensity in their responses and which reinforcer has a relatively greater impact.Although behaviorism helps us to predict, modify, and change behavior over time, it does not attempt nor intend to understand how or why the phenomenon works. Behaviorism tends not to recognize the complexity of human cognitive processes. Another potential limitation is that in most cases multiple contingencies are sal ient in the context within which behavioral management attempts take place, resulting in complex interactions. These multiple contingencies can become competing contingencies as to which one the behavior links to and its subsequent effects.Behaviorism is not concerned with nor does it account for the social context within which contingent reinforcement (or punishment) takes place. In fact, modern behaviorism including O. B. Mod. treats antecedent factors as cues for the desired behavior. Still another limitation to the behaviorism approach is the requirement for action on behalf of the manager. In behaviorism, if the contingent reinforcement is removed and no longer exists, the desired behavior that was previously reinforced is likely to decrease in frequency and intensity, eventually fading away. This elimination of the controlling consequence is referred to as â€Å"extinction. This implies that managers who practice a behavioral management approach to increase the performance of their staff need to at minimum maintain an intermittent reinforcement schedule in order to avoid this going to extinction. In an attempt to combine the best of both worlds, and to present a more comprehensive and realistic view of human behavior in organizations, many previously radical behaviorists have â€Å"mellowed out† (Luthans & Kreitner, 1985) to adopt a social cognitive approach to understanding behavior (Bandura, 1986) (also see Social Cognition, Self-Efficacy, Cognitive Approach).The social cognitive approach asserts that behavior is the result of a continuous reciprocal three-way interaction between the person (cognition), the environment (physical context, including organizational structure and design; social context, i. e. , other people), and the individual’s past behavior. As opposed to behaviorism where behavior is a function of its contingent consequences, the social cognitive lens argues that behavior is also influenced by the processes of symbolizin g, forethought, observation, self-regulation, and self-reflection (Bandura, 1986).Furthermore, from a social cognitive perspective, the role of contingent reinforcement in enhancing performance can be understood in terms of outcome utility, informative content, and regulatory mechanisms (Stajkovic & Luthans, 2001). The future of behaviorism at least as it is applied to organization studies is likely to continue within the comprehensive theoretical framework of social cognition. Both organization scholars and practitioners realize the value of the objectivity and predictive validity behaviorism in general and O. B. Mod. in particular has on measurable performance impact.However, in today’s complex, ever-changing work environment, radical behaviorism is not comprehensive enough to stand alone. With the increasing emphasis on human resources as the primary source of long term competitive advantage, the confluence of behaviorism theory and cognitive theory through social cognitiv e theory may best accomplish the goals of understanding, prediction, and effective performance management. References Bandura, A. (1986). Social Foundations of Thought and Action. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Luthans, F. , & Kreitner, R. 1985). Organizational Behavior Modification and Beyond. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman. Luthans, F. , & Stajkovic, A. (1999). Reinforce (not necessarily pay) for performance. Academy of Management Executive, 13, 49-57. Luthans, F. , Youssef, C. , & Luthans, B. (2005). Behaviorism. In Nicholson, N. , Audia, P. , & Pillutla, M. (Eds. ). The Blackwell encyclopedia dictionary of organizational behavior. London: Blackwell. Stajkovic, A. , & Luthans, F. (1997). A meta-analysis of the effects of organizational behavior modification on task performance, 1975-1995.Academy of Management Journal, 40, 1122-1149. Stajkovic, A. , & Luthans, F. (2001). Differential effects of incentive motivators on work performance. Academy of Management Journal, 44, 580-5 90. Stajkovic, A. , & Luthans, F. (2003). Behavioral management and task performance in organizations: Conceptual background, meta-analysis, and test of alternative models. Personnel Psychology, 56, 155-194. Welsh, D. H. B. , Luthans, F. , & Sommer, S. M. (1993). Managing Russian factory workers: The impact of U. S. -based behavioral and participative techniques. Academy of Management Journal, 36, 58-79.

Analysis of Act 1 Scene 7 from Shakespeare’s Macbeth Essay

This extract is from act one scene seven. This is when Macbeth gives his soliloquy on stage, right after Duncan arrives and is invited into their house by Lady Macbeth. The setting is still in Macbeth’s castle at Inverness. He is confused as to whether to kill Duncan or not. This scene is mainly about Macbeth giving his soliloquy where he shows his dilemma on whether he should kill Duncan or not. His wife Lady Macbeth accuses Macbeth of being a coward and that she herself would want to kill Duncan or at least pass on her evil ideas to Macbeth. Macbeth feels very emotional about killing Duncan as he feels that they are kinsmen and that Duncan has high regard for Macbeth. He is also doubtful that they might be caught in the process and that they will be in a worse off situation. Lady Macbeth brainwashes him and at last gets him to listen to her. There is a main theme in this scene that is that whether Macbeth should kill or not kill his king Duncan, who also happened to be his guest. Macbeth’s conscience comes over him and he feels that he should not commit this horrendous deed while his wife teases him about his weakness and cowardice. This is when Macbeth decides once in for all that he will kill Duncan as Macbeth has nothing to argue with Lady Macbeth so he listens to her. Macbeth and Lady Macbeth’s relationship is very strong. Macbeth is a very weak and cowardice man when compared to his wife as she is outgoing and is very strong. Macbeth is a brave and strong warrior but his emotions and his conscience make him very weak and frail. This causes him to have doubts on whether he should kill his king or not. There is a lot of imagery in this scene of the play. First there is all the dark imagery which portrays the evil in the book. There is also Macbeth’s ambition which is portrayed as a horse in the statement â€Å"Vaulting ambition which o’erleaps itself†. There is also some child imagery in the line â€Å"And pity, like a naked newborn babe†. There is once again the reversal of values in the last line â€Å"False face must hide what the false heart doth know†. The dramatic effect in this scene is very high as in most of the other  scenes. There is a heightened suspense of whether Macbeth will choose to kill Duncan or not. The audience is made to believe that Macbeth will not kill Duncan, but Lady Macbeth brainwashes Macbeth towards the end and he decides to kill Duncan and take the throne. This scene should be enacted on a very dark and gloomy setting where there is a lot of echo. This gives the audience the effect of evil in the set. If this scene is performed well the audience will be struck by the seriousness and the suspense of the scene. This scene is very important in the whole play as this scene shows the faithfulness of Macbeth towards Duncan. This scene also shows the good side of Macbeth. The audience is shown that Lady Macbeth was one of the main motives behind pushing Macbeth towards murdering Duncan.

Ariosto essays

Ariosto essays Italian poet, remembered primarily for his ORLANDO FURIOSO, published in its final version in 1532. Ariosto's work was the most celebrated narrative poem of the Italian high Renaissance, and the first example of modern poetry to provoke widespread critical controvesy. Ariosto was born in Reggio Emilia, as the son of Count Niccol Ariosto. At the age of then his family moved to Ferrera, where he studied law from 1489 to1494. There he also started to study Latin and Greek language and literature. When his father died in 1500, Ariosto assumed for some years the management of family estates as the eldest of 10 children. In 1502 he became commander of the fort of Canossa, and the next year he entered the service of Cardidal Ippolito d'Este. In 1513 Ariosto met Alessandra Benucci. After the death of her husband, Tito Strozzi, she became Ariosto's mistress. Because the family had settled comfortably in Ferrara, Ariosto refused to accompany Cardinal d'Este to Hungary, and entered the service of Alfonso I, Duke of Ferrara, Cardinal's brother. In 1522 he was sent to govern the Garfagnana region in the wildest part of the Apuan Alps. He returned after three years from the bandit-ridden post to Ferrara. In about 1505 Arisoto began writing Orlando Furioso. The poem was a continuation of Matteo Maria Boiardo's Orlando innamorato. Its first edition appeared in Venice in 1516 and was later revised in 1521 and 1532. The main character, Orlando, goes mad (furioso) because his love for the beautiful Angelica is not returned. Other themes are the war between Christians and Saracens, and the secondary love story of Ruggiero and Bradamante. Orlando Furioso presented a rich variety of characters, mixed romance, epic, and lyrical poetry, and made fun of outmoded chivalric manners. Later the poem had a profound influence on such poets as Tasso, Spenser, and Lope de Vega. It also fascinated artists, and in the mid-1700s G.B. Tiepolo painted in...

Definition of Criminal Conspiracy

Definition of Criminal Conspiracy A criminal conspiracy takes place when two or more people get together and plan to commit a crime, however, there is more involved when proving that criminal conspiracy has taken place. Intent First, in order for a person to be guilty of criminal conspiracy, they must have actually meant to agree to commit a crime. Next, when the person agreed to commit a crime with others, they must intend to really do whatever the objective is of the conspiracy. For example, Mark asks Daniel to help him  steal a car. Daniel agrees, but really he has decided to contact the police and report what Mark has asked him to do. In this situation, Daniel would not be guilty of criminal conspiracy because he never intended to really help Mark steal the car. Overt Act to Further Conspiracy For a criminal conspiracy to occur, a person must take some action toward carrying out that plan. The action taken does not have to be a crime to further the conspiracy. For example, if two people plan on robbing a bank, but they never take any action towards actually robbing the bank, this could satisfy the criminal conspiracy, however, most states require that there is at least one overt act taken by at least one of the conspirators, for those involved to be charged  with criminal conspiracy. There Does Not Have to Be a Crime The crime of conspiracy can be charged whether or not the crime is ever actually carried out.   For example, if two people plan to rob and bank and they go buy ski masks to wear during the robbery, they can be charged with conspiracy to commit bank robbery, even if they never actually rob the bank or even attempt to rob the bank. Buying ski masks is not a crime, but it furthers the conspiracy to commit a crime. Participation Is Not Required In most states, persons who helped plan the crime, but did not participate in the actual criminal act, can be given the same punishment as the person who carried out the crime itself. The person who commits the crime can be charged with both the crime and conspiracy to commit the crime. One or More Crimes Equals One Conspiracy Charge In criminal conspiracy cases, if the conspiracy involves multiple crimes, those involved will still only be charged with a single act of criminal conspiracy. For example, if Mark and Joe plan to rob a valuable piece of art from someones home, then sell the art on the black market and use the money that they receive to invest in an illegal drug deal, even though they conspired to commit three crimes, they will only be charged one act of criminal conspiracy. Chain and Link Conspiracy A chain and link conspiracy is a conspiracy in which there are a series of transactions, but only one overall agreement.  The different transactions are considered the links in the overall agreement, which is considered the chain.   However, the transactions will only be considered links in a chain if each link is aware that the other links are involved in the conspiracy and each link profits in the success of the overall series of transactions.   For example, Joe smuggles in drugs from Mexico, then sells some of the drugs to Jeff, who then sells it to his street dealer named Milo and Milo sells it to his customers. Joe and Milo have never spoken, therefore there is no agreement between them concerning the selling of the drugs, but because Joe knows that Jeff sells his drugs to a street dealer and Milo knows Jeff buys the drugs from the smuggler, then each of them becomes dependent on the other in order for the entire scheme to work. Wheel and Spoke Conspiracy A wheel-and-spoke conspiracy is when one person acts as the wheel and enters into agreements with different people (the spokes) or co-conspirators who have nothing to do with each other.

One change I would made to Houston Commit y College ( HCC) Essay

One change I would made to Houston Commit y College ( HCC) - Essay Example There is a problem at the Egalitarian office and the root cause must be found and dealt with as soon as possible or the Egalitarian as a training avenue for future journalists will be nothing more than a joke in the near future. In its current state, the Egalitarian does not carry any weight among the student population and its writers, rather than being admired as some of the great thinkers on campus, come across as inept and ill educated when it comes to the finer points of journalism. As students of Houston Community College, it is our duty to try and help improve our school paper as best as we can. We have an obligation to ourselves and our college to ensure that The Egalitarian becomes the embodiment of journalistic integrity and accuracy. At the moment, The Egalitarian is wanting in so many avenues as a mouthpiece for both the college administration and student body. As a part of the training ground for the students of the College of Journalism, it is of the utmost importance t hat the professors and mentors at the department educate their students on the importance of accuracy of content, proper journalistic grammar, and create a diversified topic selection for the paper that represents the student body in a professional manner using a diverse range of topics. The topics covered by the journalism students at the paper is sadly, quite wanting in terms of becoming a true voice for the student body in terms of allowing the students to be equally represented within the pages of the school paper. The topics and news articles written by the members of the staff, and even the contributing writers show a lack of connection with the general student population who are supposed to be the main readers of the paper. The editorials and other columns do not have the ability to spark an intellectual debate among the students either. In fact, the paper is quite boring when one actually bothers to try and read the paper from cover to cover. It is perhaps because of this la ck of professionalism and interesting content from the members of the school paper that the student body chooses to pass on reading the paper when they receive their copies. They do not wish to read a newspaper that does not accurately represent their interests, misrepresents information by using irrelevant or improper information in their articles. The profanity used within the articles and horrible sentence structure, grammar, and punctuation errors within the paper are also unforgivable to any decent journalism or education student of the college who bothers to read the paper. Due to the numerous problems that plague the school paper, most members of the student body and professors alike do not view The Egalitarian as a credible news sources. This negative point of view about the school paper has prevented many aspiring journalists, writers, and educators from contributing interesting and relevant news articles to the publication staff. The lack of professionalism by the members of the newspaper team make them lose their interest in contributing to the school paper. Given such a sentiment, it is quite obvious that the student body does not consider the school paper to be a newspaper that represents the students and their interests. The Egalitarian has the ability to become the platform by which the various college departments can showcase their talents to the student body. Students of graphic arts and the like are

OBSERVATION 5 OBSERVING KINDERGARTEN CLASSROOM Essay

OBSERVATION 5 OBSERVING KINDERGARTEN CLASSROOM - Essay Example Inside the class, the children were gossiping with one another and making a lot of noise. Some were even banging their desks while others started to take out their notebooks and pencils from their bags. The teacher asked the children to be quiet so that she could take the roll call but the children would not listen. The teacher then shouted at the top of her voice saying, â€Å"Be quiet!† and also clapped the rostrum with her palm loudly to gain the children’s attention. Suddenly, there was pin-drop-silence. Some children looked terrified while others put their fingers on their lips. The teacher called the students â€Å"a mess† and similar rude words. Once everybody was quiet, the teacher then started taking the roll call. It was the kindergarten classroom and the average age of the children was 5 years. They were 25 children in total. The teacher made a very rational approach in transiting from the exercise activity to the classroom activity. She asked the children to arrange themselves in a line. This not only organized the children so that they could move toward the class in a disciplined way, but also saved the teacher’s time and energy that would have otherwise been consumed in guiding the scattered children toward the classroom. The children even looked very disciplined when arranged in the form of a line. While the teacher’s approach here was very praiseworthy, her way of getting the children’s attention in the classroom was just as much indecent and unsophisticated. She looked struggling very hard to gain their attention and she even had to bang the rostrum and shout at the top of her voice to make them quiet. She was loud enough to be heard shouting outside the classroom as well. Her shouting even terrified the children. This not only broke her emotional connection with the children but might also have set a bad impression on the other teachers who had heard her shout. Rather than shouting, the teacher could have easily

Alabama Immigation Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Alabama Immigation Law - Essay Example Hence, illegal immigrants even though not entitled to public benefits are given equal access for the simple reason that there is presumption that they are present in the US legally. The main thrust of the Act is to give jobs and services where these are due—particularly US citizens—to satisfy their needs before illegal aliens. It is also intended to create a fair living environment for legal citizens and immigrants whom must be accorded sole access to the basic necessities and to live the American dream, namely—decent job, pay, health care, education and other services that taxpayers work hard for. It is the task of this paper to examine the effects of the Act in general. Understandably, the purpose of the law is laudable as basic social services are now exclusively reserved to legal residents. This is in accordance with the fundamental reason for the existence of government—to provide its legal residents decent living conditions as well as to protect them from harm. However, the Act, despite its seemingly protective characteristics, is strongly opposed even by its legal residents not only as it curtails civil liberties but the economic benefits touted for is far from happening. By virtue of the Act, legal residents are prohibited from transacting or doing business with illegal immigrants. The prohibition comes with the threat of criminal prosecution should they employ, house, transact or otherwise enter into a contract with illegal immigrants. Even simple acts of kindness or humanitarian actions in favor of illegal immigrants come within the purview of the prohibition which means criminal liability against the legal residents failing to verify an individual’s immigration status before extending the needed help or assistance. This oppressive Act led to the massive exodus of migrant workers to other parts of the US with more lenient immigration laws leaving farm lands, construction sites and other entities requiring hard labor without dedicated, skilled and reasonably paid workers. The lack of manpower is one of the most noticeable effects of the stern immigration law. The requirement of nationalization or legal documentation before being accepted for employment ushered economic slowdown instead of a booming economy. According to an article published by the Immigration Policy Centre entitled "Bad for Business: How Alabama's Anti-Immigration Stifles State Economy", the new law has already caused untold hardship for Alabama's business and citizens. Alabama is predominantly an agricultural state that employs a large amount of labor force. (American Immigration Council) Callous hands and people willing to get their hands dirty are conditions for employment. In 2010 alone, unauthorized immigrants comprise 4.2% or 95000 workers; (American Immigration Council) and as a result of the new law, undocumented residents have crippled the operation of local businesses as they had to flee to other places for the fear of getting caught. Interestingly, one of the main purposes of the Act is to provide employment for unemployed Americans however its valiant purpose is defeated as only few Americans have signed up to take the

Discretion in Law Enforcement

Discretion in Law Enforcement The Use of Law Enforcements Discretion Discretion is the ability to change from a previous set plan, rule, or action. It is used in many peoples work and personal life every day. In law enforcement, it allows them to add to the many tools already provided to ensure that all people receive the best possible service. Discretion is and always will be up to the person and is not a mandatory resource. This paper describes police discretion, and the various control mechanisms available i.e., internal control mechanisms control by the citizens, legislative control, and control by the courts. Many factors and characteristics are also the reasons why some police use discretion. The paper will summarize who and what contributes to the use of discretion while explaining why and when law enforcement is able to use it. Discretion is not about right or wrong, but using their discretion with honesty and without discrimination. Discretion is a choice to find an alternative to actions, rules, regulations, laws and even procedures. Its action is necessary because, there are times when the best choice is not the one that is written in black and white. When it comes to law enforcement, the use of discretion is determined by the incident and who is involved. Discretion is a necessary tool because criminal justice personnel will come into contact with different people in different situations. Many of those times, there will be actions or a situation that they have never heard of and for this, the rules, laws, and guidelines that are written need not be followed because of factors involved. Also, there are too many of these rules, laws and guidelines to apply to the situation. Discretion cannot be taken lightly because the end result may hurt someone In the beginning, there first has to be an understanding of discretion. Discretion is an action in which someone does not necessarily follow what was given to them. It is used by organizations every day because the right way is not always the best way. Law enforcement has the ability to use discretion constantly. It allows them to make judgment calls in almost every situation that they are involved in. Discretion is not necessarily considered acceptable or unacceptable; it is about taking factors from an incident or situation and making the best decision. Let us take a look at state police on the highway checking for speeders. The officer stopped five vehicles and gave a ticket to only one. There were many factors the officer took into consideration when deciding if and which person he stopped would get a ticket. How far over the speed limit was the person going, was the person weaving in and out of traffic, what was the cause for the speeding, or was the situation too dangerous not to go unpunished. Discretion is a good tool for law enforcement as it allows officers to help the court system. The officer is the one in the criminal justice system who determines if people gets a ticket (traffic incidents) or are arrested (for minor offenses). This is because they are the first point of contact in most situations with the citizens that they serve. Lower level law enforcement are the ones out in the field patrolling the neighborhood, they make the traffic stops, and they are the one that communicate the most with society. Because of this, law enforcement gets to know the people. Officers also learn their habits, know about their family and at times, even know of any personal problems citizens may have. With all of this knowledge about the community in which law enforcement serves, it is best for them to have and use discretion when necessary. Everyone cannot be treated the same because all situations and problems are not the same. Dealing with so many different individual cases, it b ecomes recognized that law enforcement officers could not always strictly follow all rules and regulations as stipulated by law. (Halliday, 3) Every day, depending on the situations, law enforcement has to use their discretion. It may be whether to pull their weapon, whether to pull the trigger on that weapon, whether to pull over someone for speeding or even whether to arrest a person. The decisions, to take such actions, take a lot of consideration on the part of law enforcement. There are also many factors to take into consideration. Not only about the community and what is going on with them but, also the officer and what type of day he may be having. Officers have bad days just like everyone else and that may be a factor in the choices they make. In the case of law enforcement pulling their weapon, the person, they are confronting, may have a weapon but is not confronting them. They would have the discretion to talk to the person into putting down the weapon or possibly using a stun gun. Discretion is about making the right decision in the right situation. Sometimes when making what is thought to be the right decision would come back and hurt the officer or even someone else in the end. In some situations, discretion is hard because it is not only about the officer but others who may be involved. In this case, the person just needed to get some mental health help and the officer was aware of that. There are many controls mechanisms and types of police discretion. The administrative control, which is the one that comes from the department, are the rules and regulation put out by those in charge. Administrative control is also about the number of officers in the department and where they will be assigned. It involves the department putting the best people in the best officers in respective areas to serve and protect. What if law enforcement administration at one time used their discretion to place all Black law enforcement personnel in the impoverished area because that is where most of the Blacks lived, it is not necessarily a good idea. When law enforcement administration puts only one type of person in an area, they not only are stereotyping, but the fail to give the officer and the community a chance to expand their knowledge of different cultures. Administrative control is also about the use of an officers discretion. There may be the need for the administration to take act ion because discretion used by law enforcement was not used properly or was of an illegal nature. For this, disciplinary actions or extra training may be required. It is just explain to those who did wrong the proper way of doing things. If it is training, the administration and others could run through scenarios. This would put them in a more realistic situation while critiquing each step of the way. Administrative control is also when budgeting for in the department falls. If there is not enough money to hire, many officers will be affected. Officers will have to work longer hours for less money. The vehicles will not be maintained causing fewer officers on the streets. The officers on the streets also will ponder how to get the job done causing issues with safety. This type of control gives forces law enforcement to make choices they otherwise would not make or even cause them to be hurt because the job has to be done. There is also the external control to the use of discretion by law enforcement. This includes controls by citizens, legislative controls, and the control by courts. The control by citizens pertains to the citizen review board. Here, the citizens voice their opinion about the conduct of an officer. This is a way to maintain discipline of those who serve the community and make a resolution of complaints. In order for the citizen review board to work, there must be the right people in the position and also resources to help them out. Without the necessary tools, it would most likely fail. The citizen review board cannot function alone and need constant feedback from both the community and the law enforcement administration. Someone will set policy for the police department so that some laws are enforced passively and others actively, the legislatures by default allow these legislative decisions to be made by the police. (Tieger, 721) This is where the legislative control comes into play. This control is about laws and how much discretion is given to law enforcement. An example of this is when a procedure is no longer used by law enforcement because of the many serious injuries to suspects. When taking down a suspect, an officer used that particular procedure, even though the officer was well aware that the procedure was no longer to be used. He used his discretion to use that procedure because it was the only way to subdue the suspect. Even though there ae legislative controls, they are also limited because how a law is written. An example is when it comes to domestic abuse. While a law is written to explain who and when someone should be arrested in the case of domestic abuse, the discretion to follow the law comes during investigation because law enforcement has a problem with probable cause and determining the aggressor. (Gaines Kappeler, 256) The discretion is to either arrest because of the law even if it is the wrong person or arrest no one. When using discretion, law enforcement has to be flexible and enlightened in order to determine the legally responsible party of the illegal offense. The law of the offense cannot be followed because it would be too strong and it is sometimes better not to give justice. When thinking about the action of justice, there become concerns about who the justice comes to and does not come to. With legislative control comes political influence. Just because laws are made, it does not mean that politicians have the right to influence and push them on law enforcement. Law enforcement must be protected from these actions and allowed to do their job with the best of their ability and with the knowledge and training. Political pressure will cause so me to rebel which would then cause turmoil in the department. When arrest decisions become based upon personal judgments, there is a real potential for arbitrary and discriminatory enforcement of the law. (Wortly, 3) A great example is when the child of law enforcement is involved in a felony offense. They know about it and does not do anything or even turn their child in. But, if it was another persons child, even their friends, they would arrest and take that child into custody. This is unfair justice discretion. What makes their child any different than someone else? This type of discretion could possibly lead to other types of corruption which should not be allowed in law enforcement. Law enforcement is held to a higher standard than the ordinary man which means that their family should be held responsible just like the ordinary person when a serious offense has occurred. Control by the courts is necessary as they are the highest law of the land. What the court has put out are basically guidelines to be followed. One true law or rule is when the Miranda Warning must be administered. This is necessary when questioning is to be done and is necessary just in case the information given has to be used in court. Administering the Miranda warning not only protects the officer but also the suspect. It protects the officer by allowing them to ask any question they may need for a case. It protects the suspect because they do not have to answer and could stop answering their question at any time. While there are different mechanisms to control discretion used by law enforcement, there is also different styles that are distinguished by certain actions the officer may or may not perform. Wortley wrote of the policing styles and how it plays a role in the use of discretion. The service style is about community policing and how it does not take an arrest to solve an issue. In the watchman style, it is about keeping thing under control and in order. Law enforcement will get into it with offenders if they had to but prefer to keep it simple and allow them to settle down. There is then the legalistic style where the person goes to jail regardless of the seriousness of the offense and the offender. Discretion is purposeful and essential when it comes to crime control. Crime control cannot be effectively achieved through the enactment of laws unless the public supports sufficient police discretion in the enforcement of criminal laws. (Cihan Wells, 349) If the society and the community are not willing to help out, then law enforcement is not able to do their job. This is where they use discretion in investigation of criminal activity. There is discretion in the questions asked about the incident and who the questions will be asked to. There is discretion in what age the person should be when they are looking for suspects. As children see and remember almost everything, law enforcement knows that the articulating skill of a child is not the best so they will have to use great discretion to get the information. Law enforcement also must use discretion in what information to use because children can also be talkative at times. While police discretion is seen as inevitable and essential, there remains an underlying fear that its exercise may lead to arbitrary, corrupt or unethical behavior. (Bronitt Stenning, 319) Not using discretion properly could cause corruption in law enforcement. This action could not only hurt the department, but also the officer (s) involved. Too much discretion given to certain situations could give the impression that law enforcement is biased. This issue could cause a problem in the community which could then cause problems in the department. When the community is not happy because of the way law enforcement is performing their duties, it could cause many problems such as distrust. Another problem with possibly not using discretion comes when the administration puts only certain officers in certain areas. Lets look at Black officers working in the most impoverished part of a town. Administration thought this would be best because they think that only Black people live in these t ypes of area. This could cause a problem as there are many officers that may have grown up in the same area and they are just as knowledgeable about the people in the impoverished area. Using discretion not the mix the cultures within the department, in the different areas of town deprives everyone. The department, as well as the officer, does not learn about the community, businesses or people and vice versa. Discretion is empowered to law enforcement by the selective enforcement of the penal code. (Wortley, 3) This action happens from the time law enforcement comes into contact with a person until the time they are allowed to leave or are arrested. When an officer uses discretion during an incident, they more or less give the sentence. Whether it is taking someone to jail, giving them a ticket or just letting to go after a conversation, it is up to the officer. Law enforcement does not do this just after talking to a person. They take into consideration many factors such as the attitude the person has, if a person has had previous run-ins with the law, or if the person is wanted. Discretion is about making the best decision for the person and law enforcement at that time. Many times when an alleged suspect has an attitude and presents that to law enforcement, law enforcement will in turn have an attitude with that person. It shows that the nicer, you are, can help you get a better decisi on from what is intended. When it comes to being known by law enforcement because of the times they have stopped you, law enforcement used previous incident to do it again Even though it may seem biased, many discretions used by law enforcement is necessary to stop crime. Law enforcement is out in the community constantly and knows who does the crime and what type of crime. Law enforcement, most of the time is trying to stop it before it even starts. In conclusion, there are several explanations to discretion but it is basically a persons choice of an alternative to rules or regulations. When it comes to law enforcement, they use discretion constantly. In the understanding of discretion it should be known that it is not mandatory to be used as well as different factors and characteristics that are involved when law enforcement uses it to give a warrant, citation or just let a person walk away. Discretion is not something that is actually written in stone. Discretion of the actions from law enforcement comes from actions, attitudes, and any other previous information as well as the people involved. It is just a way for law enforcement to make a judgment on the outcome of the issues in a community. The discretion that law enforcement uses could be beneficial to the citizens of the community as well as the department. When using discretion wisely, law enforcement and the community get to know each other. Using discretion could also cut down on the time it takes up in the court system. As long as law enforcement uses discretion properly and honestly, they cannot get into trouble for being biased. Discretion is useful and necessary because all incidents with law enforcement do not need to see the inside of the court. There are several controls mechanisms to discretion such as internal, citizens, legislative and courts. There are also several styles that are distinguished by the actions law enforcement performs. Discretion is a unique choice to give people because it could make their work place and life easier. References Alpert, G. P., Dunham, R. G., Stroshine, M., Bennett. K., MacDonald, J. (2004). Police Officers decision making and discretion: Forming suspicion and making a stop. Retrieved from: https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/213004.pdf. Bronitt, S. Stenning, P. (2011). Understanding discretion in modern policing. Retrieved from: http://www98.griffith.edu.au/dspace/bitstream/handle/10072/44249/76896_1.pdf?sequence=1. Cihan, A. Wells, W. (2010). Citizens opinions about police discretion in criminal investigations. College of Criminal Justice, Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, Texas. Retrieved from: http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy2.apus.edu/docview/868913488/fulltextPDF?accountid=8289. Gaines, L. K. Kappeler, V. E. (2011). Policing in America (7th ed.). Waltham, MA Anderson Publishing, Elsevier, Inc. Tieger, J. H. (n. d.). Police discretion and discriminatory enforcement. Retrieved from: http://scholarship.law.duke.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2345context=dlj. Wortley, R. (2003). Measuring police attitudes towards discretion. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 30,538-558. Retrieved from: http://cjb.sagepub.com.ezproxy2.apus.edu/content/30/5/538.full.pdf+ht.