Intercultural Communication

Intercultural Communication Free Online Research Papers The success of personal and professional relationships depends on the effectiveness of intercultural communication. Working with customers and partners from different cultures can be challenging and requires a great deal of skill. Intercultural expertise minimizes the possible risks when involved in international affairs. The inability to communicate between cultures can result in embarrassment, confusion, and offense. Intercultural Communication occurs between individuals with different cultural backgrounds. Cultural differences are reflected in various ways. Verbal language, body language, gestures, and phrases can take several meanings between many cultures. Research concludes facial expressions displaying emotions are universal but rules on the use of the expressions differ. (Kazdin) Intercultural conflict usually results from miscommunication or misunderstanding, which is why intercultural communication skills are important. This paper will attempt describe a scenario where intercultural communication causes conflict or confusion and offer strategies to avoid future conflicts. Description of the Communication Issue John, a New Orleans native, is relocated after Hurricane Katrina. He is new to the city of Houston, Texas, and Patricia is the first person he meets. Despite John’s strong accent strange use of words, she thought he was a nice guy. Patricia had to ask him to repeat things more that once and noticed that he referred to the sidewalk as a banquet (ban-ket), and he wanted to know what the hamburger at McDonald’s was dressed with. Patricia had also heard a great deal about New Orleans’ culture and was interested in learning more. John asked Patricia where she stayed. She didn’t understand, so he rephrased the question asking where she lived. The two exchanged numbers and Patricia promised to show him around the city the following day. John asked Patricia if it would be inappropriate to call her that evening. Patricia gave John permission to do so because she was truly interested in John’s conversation. John gives Patricia a call and when she answers, he says â€Å"Good night.† She is confused, but responds, â€Å"I hope you have a good night, also. I guess I will talk to you tomorrow.† Patricia then hangs up the phone. John is puzzled now, because he was calling to continue the previous conversation the two were engaged in. John then wonders whether he called too late or if Patricia was interested in talking to him, and he was unsure whether he should call Patricia again. Patricia wonders why John only called to say good night, but she thought it was a nice gesture. Diagnosis John, having grown up in New Orleans, uses the phrase, â€Å"Good night,† as a greeting. John was unaware that by saying this to someone in Houston, the person would assume he was saying good-bye. Patricia was familiar with the term being used as a conversation ending and didn’t understand John’s intentions. Patricia was not aware of sayings and terms used in New Orleans, on John didn’t know that such saying took on totally different meanings when used elsewhere. Communication is expressed through a person’s cultural background, therefore, differs among individuals. Through communication, ethnic, social, and professional identities are reflected. A person’s identity is more that how a person is label, but how the person acts and reacts in the presence of like and unlike individuals. Ineffectively communicating in intercultural situations can be damaging to relationship building. Cultures have different conceptions and ideas of what is appropriate. Body language and personal space must also be considered. Language is the most important element in intercultural communication and the use of language determines the effectiveness. Proficiency is an important factor when communication occurs between two people of different cultural backgrounds. Trust, awareness, respect, and honesty are needed to develop the necessary skills to communicate cross-culturally. Competence is not something that can be learned easily, competence is a process that requires practice and patience. Whether a potential customer or friend, communication plays a role in the fate of the relationship. â€Å"Constructive and destructive intercultural conflict management depends on many factors. One of the key factors is the ability to apply flexible communication skills in managing both culture-based and individual-based differences. Constructive intercultural conflict management is defined as the use of culture-sensitive communication skills to manage the process of conflict productively and reach important goals of all parties amicably. By contrast, destructive conflict means the parties are engaging in inflexible thinking and inflexible conflict patterns that lock them into prolonged cycles of defensiveness and mutual dissatisfaction leading to escalation or total impasse.†(Ting-Toomey, 1999) Resolution of conflict requires that parties are mindful is the contribution of a different approach. Parties must also share a common goal and be willing to experiment with conflict management skills. Improvement Strategies Avoiding broad and stereotypical statements is an important strategy in avoiding intercultural communication conflict. One should never assume that the thought and actions of all members of a cultural group will be the same. Use of racial or cultural stereotypes can possibly offend members of that race or culture. Ethnic humor is also unacceptable because this can be viewed as prejudice or discrimination. One must also be aware that sayings, phrases, and statements differ in cultures, even if he or she is not familiar with the different meanings. Individuals should listen attentively, still if disagreement arises, and pay attention to gestures, tones, movements, and other forms of communication. In a diverse, multicultural society, citizens need to be sensitive and knowledgeable about linguistic and cultural differences.(Kottak Kozaitis, 2003) By increasing awareness about different ethnic or linguistic backgrounds, the chance of offending or making someone feel discriminated decreases. Although most Americans speak English, the language is not always spoken to the same extent so careful consideration must be taken when communicating with others of different cultural backgrounds. Effective communication is the key element in building successful personal or professional relationships. Developing the skill needed to communicate with people from different cultural backgrounds can be a difficult task. Learning to communicate effectively with people from different cultures can help one to avoid conflict, confusion, and embarrassment. References Answers.com. Retrieved April 5, 2009, from answers.com/topic/cross-cultural Encyclopedia of psychology, Vol. 2. Kazdin, Alan E. (Ed); pp. 357-359. Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association; New York, NY, US: Oxford University Press. 502 pp. Gumbo Pages (n.d.). A lexicon of New Orleans terminology and speech. Retrieved April 5, 2009, from gumbopages.com/ Harvey, M., Griffith, D. (2002). Developing effective intercultural relationships: The importance of communication strategies. Thunderbird International Business Review, 44(4), 455-476. doi: 10.1002/tic.10029. Kottak, C.P., Kozaitis, K.A. (2003). On Being Different: Diversity and Muticulturalism in the North American Mainstream (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw Hill. The Daily Resource for Entrepreneurs (2009). Inc.. Retrieved April 3, 2009, from inc.com/encyclopedia/intercultural-communication.html The Mid-Atlantic Equity Consortium (). Using cross-cultural communication to improve relationships. Retrieved April 5, 2009, from maec.org/ Ting-Toomey, S. (1998). Communicating across cultures. New York: Guilford Press. Research Papers on Intercultural CommunicationAnalysis Of A Cosmetics AdvertisementHip-Hop is Art19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenHonest Iagos Truth through DeceptionRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andThree Concepts of PsychodynamicIncorporating Risk and Uncertainty Factor in CapitalCapital PunishmentNever Been Kicked Out of a Place This Nice

Evolution Labs - Coacervates Lab

Evolution Labs - Coacervates Lab Coacervates are a life-like creation that prove that life may have formed from simple organic substances under the right conditions that eventually led to the formation of prokaryotes. Sometimes called protocells, these coacervates mimic life by creating vacuoles and movement. All it takes to create these coacervates is protein, carbohydrates, and an adjusted pH. This is easily done in the lab and then the coacervates can be studied under a microscope to observe their life-like properties. Materials: goggleslab coats or protective covering for clothescompound light microscopemicroscope slidescoverslipstest tube racksmall culture tubes (one tube per student)rubber stopper or cap that fits the culture tubeone medicine dropper per tube0.1M HCl solutionpH papercoacervate mix Making the coacervate mix: Mix 5 parts of 1% gelatin solution with 3 parts 1% gum acacia solution on the day of the lab (the 1% solutions can be made up ahead of time). Gelatin can be purchased at either the grocery store or a science supply company. Gum acacia is very affordable and can be bought from some science supply companies. Procedure: Put on the goggles and lab coats for safety. There is acid used in this lab, so extra precautions should be taken when working with the chemicals.Use good lab practices when setting up the microscope. Make sure the microscope slide and coverslip are clean and ready for use.Obtain a clean culture tube and a test tube rack to hold it. Fill up the culture tube about half way with the coacervate mix which is a combination of 5 parts gelatin (a protein) to 3 parts gum acacia (a carbohydrate).Use a dropper to put a drop of the mix onto a piece of pH paper and record the initial pH.Add a drop of acid to the tube and then cover the end of the tube with a rubber stopper (or culture tube cap) and invert the entire tube once to mix. If this is done properly, it will turn somewhat cloudy. If the cloudiness disappears, add another drop of acid and invert the tube once again to mix. Continue adding drops of acid until the cloudiness stays. Most likely, this will not take more than 3 drops. If it t akes more than that, check to be sure you have the right concentration of acid. When it stays cloudy, check the pH by putting a drop on pH paper and record the pH. Place a drop of the cloudy coacervate mix on a slide. Cover the mix with a coverslip, and search under low power for your sample. It should look like clear, round bubbles with smaller bubbles inside. If you are having trouble finding your coacervates, try adjusting the light of the microscope.Switch the microscope to high power. Draw a typical coacervate.Add three more drops of acid, one at a time, inverting the tube to mix after each single drop. Take a drop of the new mix and test its pH by putting it on the pH paper.After washing your original coacervates off of your microscope slide (and the coverslip, too), put a drop of the new mix on the slide and cover with the coverslip.Find a new coacervate on low power of your microscope, then switch to high power and draw it on your paper.Be careful with clean up of this lab. Follow all safety procedures for working with acid when cleaning. Critical Thinking Questions: Compare and contrast the materials you used in this lab to create coacervates to the supposed materials available on the ancient Earth.At what pH did the coacervate droplets form? What does this tell you about the acidity of the ancient oceans (if it is assumed this is how life formed)?What happened to the coacervates after you added the extra drops of acid? Hypothesize how you could get the original coacervates to come back into your solution.Is there a way coacervates may be more visible when looking through a microscope? Create a controlled experiment to test your hypothesis. Lab adapted from original procedure by the University of Indiana

Sociological Philosophy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Sociological Philosophy - Essay Example Plato suggests powers exercised by a ruler are governed by customary and community rules. Decisions are made by the minds of the rulers and their delegates. Humans have some innate knowledge of what is important and good in human life and because of this, we should not be constrained by laws and rules but by what our minds tell us what is right and just in the circumstances. The laws do not expressly provide on how to deal with this specific situation and judgment must then be made on moral principles. Permanent laws are incompatible with changing demographics and technology. Laws must change at the same pace with the rest of society to maintain society's current perspective of justice and righteousness, but time delays in passing laws precludes this. Still now, the public waits for tougher dog laws to be passed on pit bulls and others alike. Even worse, there is no guarantee administration will be efficient. Here, Plato argues, rules fail to meet the differences of time and there is a need for rulers to exercise discretion as it encourages efficiency. Where rules fail to take into account of specific, exceptional cases, Aristotle claims, equity should apply. Judges should correct errors of the law, rising from oversight by the lawmakers, given there are rules to be corrected in the first place. This is therefore, an argument to being ruled by laws. He favours rule by democracy where government by a collective of good men is better than being ruled by an absolute king. Decisions ought to be made by a democratically-elected assembly. Unlike Plato's idea of 'permanence', offices and positions will be rotated; enforcing the idea that everyone is equal and everyone should both rule and be ruled. The practice of using legal precepts to decide disputes was criticized by American Legal Realists as either redundant or pernicious. Disputes, it is said, should be decided justly. Where legal precepts dictate the same outcome as that of justice, and then legal precepts are redundant--acting justly will achieve the same results as following the precept. Where legal precepts recommend a different result than that recommended by justice then following the rules are pernicious. The result is, in the words of Jerome Frank, "injustice is according to law." (Frank, 1936) Most people are of a similar opinion when confronted with what appears to be the "unjust" application of a rule to a particular situation. One assumption underlying this objection is that, because they are formulated before a dispute arises, legal precepts cannot take into account the specific facts of a dispute that may argue in favour of a different "just" result than that recommended by the legal precept. Only after the fact can we know enough about the actual dispute to do real justice between the parties. As Frank argued, The judge, at his best is an arbitrator, a "sound man" who strives to do justice to the parties by exercising a wise discretion with reference to the peculiar circumstances of the case. He does not merely "find" or invent some generalized rule which he "applies" to the facts presented to him. He does "equity" in the sense in which Aristotle--when thinking most clearly--described it. "It is equity," he wrote in his Rhetoric, "to

Food Allergys Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Food Allergys - Essay Example Family background and age seem to be known causes of certain allergies. Hay fever, asthma, hives and eczema can be traced back to specific family backgrounds. While allergies such as milk, soy, wheat and eggs are considered to be more age related and occur mostly in children. In adults, food allergies are most commonly connected with the ingestion of peanuts, fish and shellfish. Recent studies also suggest that an immune system defect may also cause food allergies. Dr. Claudio Nicoletti of the Institute of Food Research in the United Kingdom believes that an allergy happens in 2 stages. He explains that "There are two stages to food allergy. The first is sensitisation, when the immune system starts producing an antibody in response to eating a food. The second is when that food is eaten for a second time, triggering an allergic reaction. We have identified an immune response malfunction that occurs in the sensitisation stage, which could provide a target for future therapies," (qtd. in FoodQuality news.com) Food Allergies are estimated to occur in 6 to 8 percent of infants and young children. A number of these children outgrow their Food Allergies over the first three to five years of life.

Effects of Mass Media Essay Example for Free

Effects of Mass Media Essay The benefits that the society gets from mass media have undeniably led to the heavy reliance of people to media for information and entertainment. While the society perceives the media information as either real or important, the media shapes the values and culture of people into an entirely new concept that always end up to the conclusion that the world has been changing because of advancement in terms of technology. From selling goods to giving salient issues, the people can rely on the power of mass media. The heavy reliance of society to media may had been evident in the lifestyle of the mainstream; however, the information that the society keeps nowadays constantly change, molding the psychological and sociological aspects of the next generation. Mass media plays a very important role in the society. The people have been relying on the capability of media to inform, entertain, and provide all the necessary information that the individuals need. The people cannot deny the benefits that they gain from media for different purposes. In fact, its influences in the society have been evident not only through the development of the world in terms of technology but also through the culture and perceptions that the people have nowadays. Media exposures show that media consumption has measurable effects on the perceptions of the society. The people use media information and their actions, judgments, and attitudes are unconsciously being affected by the media messages. The society has been showing too many evidences of media effects; however, the people seem to recognize the benefits of media sources more rather than the negative impacts that it brings to the public. Each media concept has a target audience and the effects vary depending on the level of involvement of the audience and the status of a certain cluster in the society. Apparently, the modern media has been targeting the cluster of the society which can easily be reached and influenced—the young generation. Due to continuous release of media concepts and endless influx of technology, does media still portray images that would help for the betterment of the young adults? What are the negative effects of media concepts to the young generation? Media Images in 20th Century As the world conforms to modernity, the media images have been constantly changing giving the people new ideas and information in fashion trends, technology, and current events. The media sources keep on providing information and the people stay connected with the media information not only to be updated with the changes but because of the availability of resources that would connect the people and the media regardless of their location. Today, media is far different from the media that people have known in the past century. The television shows are more advanced and the films and advertisements show evidences of development in terms of media tools and concepts. Consequently, the society get use to seeing new concepts everyday and the post modern world leave the people with no choice but to conform in order to survive. Even though the society has been criticizing the media for the offensive images that media portrays, the mainstream still relies on the information that media could provide for them. Media sources boomed not only for entertainment but also for commercial purposes in twentieth century. From business to entertainment, the media has been the source of information of any cluster of the society. Today, the young generation can be seen on media sources endorsing consumer goods or promoting services to the society. While some teens appear to be wholesome, some are being criticized for negative underlying messages to the mainstream. Some media sources portray the fun of being a teenager in this modern society and some messages convey a message that the young adults are the hope of the future generation. On the contrary, there are films and television shows that portray aggression and violence. The advertisements portray images of thin and skinny young women who endorse products to the market. The modern youth are being perceived as materialistic, socially aggressive, and partying individuals because of the images that the mainstream sees on media sources. Positive Impacts of Mass Media on Teens The society has been blaming the mass media for making the young adults change their perceptions toward certain matter and behave exactly opposite of how people expect them to be. The society recalls the images that they have seen on media sources which are often considered as negative due to the effects that these portrayals brought to them. Apparently, the effects of mass media have been in the heart of debate in the society because most people perceive media in negative aspect while some still consider the benefits that the society gets from it. Due to negative images on media, the society often fails to recognize the positive effects that media can give to the public. Although some parents perceive television as helpful in developing the mind of their children, the society on the other hand, points out this perception as effect of media brainwashing. The heavy reliance of people on media has been the effect of the society’s acceptance to all the messages that are being conveyed on all media sources.

Sampling Methods Essays -- Statistics

Sampling is the framework on which any form of research is carried out. A suitable sample that meets the inclusion and exclusion criteria of a research design must be chosen from a given population to carry out studies. In this essay comparison is made between stratified random sampling and convenience sampling. The population on which the researcher is interested in carrying out his or her research may be too large, therefore a suitable sample which can represent the population in correct proportion must be chosen. Restraints such as limitation of time, resources and many other factors necessitate the selection of a sample for research purpose so that better quality data is obtained from it and that the researcher can make statement about the population he or she is interested in (French,S et al.,2001,).The method of sampling should be cost effective, less time consuming and be simple in design to attract participants but care should be taken that accurate and valid data can be col lected. The sample on which the study is actually done is derived from the population which is accessible to the researcher; the study sample may include all of the accessible population or a fraction of it and this accessible population is a part of the target population. The target population is the collection of cases to which generalization can be made and on which the researcher is ultimately interested in (Sim,J and Wright,C. 2000). Hence the entire process of collection of samples for the indented study can be termed as sampling. Sampling is broadly divided into probability sampling; in which the selection of samples are done at random and non- probability sampling; where selection of samples is entirely dependent on the researcher’s choice and ... ...ana, M., (1997). Research for the health professional: A practical guide. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis. Bowling, A., (2001). Research methods in health: Investigating health and health services. 2nd ed. Berkshire: Open University press. Buddhakulsomsiri, J. Parthanadee, P.,(2008).Stratified random sampling for estimating billing accuracy in health care system. Health care management science, vol.11 (1), pp.41-54. Available through:medline(accessed 25 0ct 2010). French, S. Reynolds, F. Swain, J., (2001). Practical research: A guide for therapist. 2nd ed. Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann. Portney, L, G. Watkins, M, P.,( 2009). Foundation of clinical research: Application to practice. 3rd ed. Upper saddle River, N.J: Pearson prentice hall. Sim, j. Wright, C.,( 2000). Research in health care: Concepts, Design and Methods. Cheltenham: Stanley thrones (publisher) Ltd.

Behavioural Approach

BEHAVIORISM Fred Luthans, James B. Avey and Brett Luthans Definition Behaviorism is a theoretical foundation with roots in psychology with an intentional focus on observable, measurable behavior as the primary unit of analysis (Luthans, Youssef, & Luthans, 2005). Behaviorism systematically analyzes the relationships between an individual’s behavior and environmental contingencies. The study and practice of behaviorism emphasizes predicting and controlling/managing behavior and thus is especially relevant to organization studies.The behaviorism paradigm is in contrast to the popular cognitive psychology theories in that behaviorism is not focused on internal cognitive or affective processes or indirect measures of beliefs, attitudes or feelings. Whereas cognitive based approaches attempt to understand and explain the multifaceted causes and complexity of human behavior, behaviorism is based on the premise that behavior is a function of its environmental consequences or continge ncies (also see Motivation, Contingency Theory).There are four primary historical building blocks of behaviorism. These major foundational contributions are Pavlov’s (1849-1936) classical conditioning experiments, Thorndike’s (1874-1949) law of effect, Watson’s (1878-1958) experiments with human conditioning, and Skinner’s (1904-1990) work and conceptualization of operant conditioning (also see Operant Conditioning). However, applied to organization studies, the most influential application of behaviorism would be Luthans and Kreitner’s (1985) book Organizational Behavior Modification and Beyond.Conceptual Overview Have you ever wondered how children, adults, and even animals learn to respond to and operate in their world? Early in the twentieth century, Thorndike coined the famous law of effect by systematically studying cats in a puzzle box. Thorndike’s law of effect states behaviors followed by positive consequences tend to be strengthene d and increase in subsequent frequency, while those followed by negative consequences tend to weaken and decrease in frequency.Even before Thorndike established the law of effect, a Russian scientist named Ivan Pavlov conditioned several dogs to salivate to the sound of a ringing bell. Originally the bell was sounded with the presentation of food (meat powder, positive consequence) and ultimately the dog’s salivation was in accordance with the bell regardless of food presentation (Pavlov highlighted the stimulus-response phenomenon).In a logical progression, Watson applied the behavioral conditioning mechanism to humans when he conditioned the subject â€Å"little Albert† to fear white rats by associating them with a loud, unpleasant noise (negative consequence). In the 1930’s the famous psychologist B. F. Skinner made a significant discovery for modern behaviorism that led to the modern practice of organizational behavior modification. Using rats and pigeons in controlled environments, his studies found that the consequences of behavior were influential in determining, predicting and controlling that behavior.Skinner highlighted the important distinction between respondent conditioning (Pavlovian S-R connection) where the stimuli elicit the behavior and operant conditioning (the organism operates on the environment in order to obtain the desired consequence, or the R-S connection) where the behavior is a function of the consequence. Skinner’s operant conditioning with the focus on environmental consequences as behavioral determinants instead of antecedent stimuli led to the underlying core premise of modern behaviorism.Based on this scientific foundation, the study of behaviorism suggests that we can predict and modify behavior by strategically controlling (i. e. , managing) the consequences. This well-known practice of managing behavioral contingencies has become known as â€Å"behavior modification. † Modern behaviorism an d behavior modification has been applied to organization studies and performance management in the workplace by Luthans and Kreitner (1985) as â€Å"organizational behavior modification,† or simply O. B.Mod (Luthans and Kreitner, 1985 for a full review) (also see Classical Management, Organizational Behavior). The O. B. Mod. approach to performance management involves five sequential steps: (1) identify critical performance-related behaviors; (2) measure the frequency of those identified behaviors; (3) analyze the antecedents and consequences associated with the behavior within the existing environment; (4) intervene by applying positive consequences/reinforcers contingent upon exhibiting the desired behavior; and (5) evaluate the results by measuring changes in the behavior and its impact on performance.In over 30 years of multiple research studies and applications of this O. B. Mod. approach, Luthans and colleagues ( Stajkovic & Luthans, 1997, 2003), and other behavioral ma nagement scholars have been able to reach consistent, conclusive findings. First, three types of positive consequences/reinforcers result in an increase of desired work related behaviors and performance outcomes when administered contingently. These are: money, performance feedback, and social recognition (Luthans & Stajkovic, 1999).A major finding for managing organizations is that in many cases feedback and/ or recognition, which typically involve no direct cost, often results in similar (and sometimes higher) performance outcomes than monetary reinforcers that are often outside a manager’s direct control. Luthans and colleagues offer guidelines for use of these reinforcers. For example, effective performance feedback must be positive (emphasizing what is right), immediately following the desired behavior, graphic, and specific.Effective social recognition must include personal one-on-one attention and appreciation from the manager communicating to the employee that the des ired behavior has been noticed and admired by the manager versus a standard program where randomly selected employees are recognized regardless of demonstration of desired behaviors (which is what many of the formal recognition programs become over time). Positively reinforcing desired behaviors is significantly more effective in terms of performance impact over time than punishing undesired behaviors.It is important to note that punishment may be necessary when there is a need to immediately cease potentially harmful behavior. For example, in the case of a workplace safety violation (e. g. not wearing a helmet or eye protectors on a construction site), the behavioral management approach would not take time to measure the outcomes and wait for the desired safe behavior to occur in order to administer positive reinforcement. However, in general, the potential long term harm of punishment (e. g. stress, burnout, revenge, turnover, decrease in commitment) may be more than its potential benefits.It is important to point out that behavioral management works across various organizational types, industries, and cultures (Luthans & Stajkovic, 1999). For example, the behavioral management technique has been successfully employed in a Russian factory, where it demonstrated stronger performance outcomes than the participative management technique (Welsh, Luthans, & Sommer, 1993) and most recently with Korean information service providers. Critical Commentary and Future Directions The contributions of behaviorism in general, and more specifically the O.B. Mod. approach to behavioral management, have been very positive in organizational studies. Behaviorism provides understanding of how we learn, operate, and perform in all types of organizations. Organizations achieve their missions, visions, goals, and competitive advantage through the performance and behavior of people. A meta-analysis shows that the application of the O. B. Mod. model in the workplace across multiple i ndustries, levels, and cultures increased performance on average 17 percent (Stajkovic & Luthans, 1997).Despite the overwhelming support of how well behaviorism works in the organization, several limitations to the technique must be highlighted. First, individuals are unique and thus not all people respond the same way to reinforcers. Their desires are not only different, but they may also change over time. However, this is not a major problem when applying O. B. Mod. in the workplace because people in general desire money, feedback and recognition. However, they may vary in the level of intensity in their responses and which reinforcer has a relatively greater impact.Although behaviorism helps us to predict, modify, and change behavior over time, it does not attempt nor intend to understand how or why the phenomenon works. Behaviorism tends not to recognize the complexity of human cognitive processes. Another potential limitation is that in most cases multiple contingencies are sal ient in the context within which behavioral management attempts take place, resulting in complex interactions. These multiple contingencies can become competing contingencies as to which one the behavior links to and its subsequent effects.Behaviorism is not concerned with nor does it account for the social context within which contingent reinforcement (or punishment) takes place. In fact, modern behaviorism including O. B. Mod. treats antecedent factors as cues for the desired behavior. Still another limitation to the behaviorism approach is the requirement for action on behalf of the manager. In behaviorism, if the contingent reinforcement is removed and no longer exists, the desired behavior that was previously reinforced is likely to decrease in frequency and intensity, eventually fading away. This elimination of the controlling consequence is referred to as â€Å"extinction. This implies that managers who practice a behavioral management approach to increase the performance of their staff need to at minimum maintain an intermittent reinforcement schedule in order to avoid this going to extinction. In an attempt to combine the best of both worlds, and to present a more comprehensive and realistic view of human behavior in organizations, many previously radical behaviorists have â€Å"mellowed out† (Luthans & Kreitner, 1985) to adopt a social cognitive approach to understanding behavior (Bandura, 1986) (also see Social Cognition, Self-Efficacy, Cognitive Approach).The social cognitive approach asserts that behavior is the result of a continuous reciprocal three-way interaction between the person (cognition), the environment (physical context, including organizational structure and design; social context, i. e. , other people), and the individual’s past behavior. As opposed to behaviorism where behavior is a function of its contingent consequences, the social cognitive lens argues that behavior is also influenced by the processes of symbolizin g, forethought, observation, self-regulation, and self-reflection (Bandura, 1986).Furthermore, from a social cognitive perspective, the role of contingent reinforcement in enhancing performance can be understood in terms of outcome utility, informative content, and regulatory mechanisms (Stajkovic & Luthans, 2001). The future of behaviorism at least as it is applied to organization studies is likely to continue within the comprehensive theoretical framework of social cognition. Both organization scholars and practitioners realize the value of the objectivity and predictive validity behaviorism in general and O. B. Mod. in particular has on measurable performance impact.However, in today’s complex, ever-changing work environment, radical behaviorism is not comprehensive enough to stand alone. With the increasing emphasis on human resources as the primary source of long term competitive advantage, the confluence of behaviorism theory and cognitive theory through social cognitiv e theory may best accomplish the goals of understanding, prediction, and effective performance management. References Bandura, A. (1986). Social Foundations of Thought and Action. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Luthans, F. , & Kreitner, R. 1985). Organizational Behavior Modification and Beyond. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman. Luthans, F. , & Stajkovic, A. (1999). Reinforce (not necessarily pay) for performance. Academy of Management Executive, 13, 49-57. Luthans, F. , Youssef, C. , & Luthans, B. (2005). Behaviorism. In Nicholson, N. , Audia, P. , & Pillutla, M. (Eds. ). The Blackwell encyclopedia dictionary of organizational behavior. London: Blackwell. Stajkovic, A. , & Luthans, F. (1997). A meta-analysis of the effects of organizational behavior modification on task performance, 1975-1995.Academy of Management Journal, 40, 1122-1149. Stajkovic, A. , & Luthans, F. (2001). Differential effects of incentive motivators on work performance. Academy of Management Journal, 44, 580-5 90. Stajkovic, A. , & Luthans, F. (2003). Behavioral management and task performance in organizations: Conceptual background, meta-analysis, and test of alternative models. Personnel Psychology, 56, 155-194. Welsh, D. H. B. , Luthans, F. , & Sommer, S. M. (1993). Managing Russian factory workers: The impact of U. S. -based behavioral and participative techniques. Academy of Management Journal, 36, 58-79.

Analysis of Act 1 Scene 7 from Shakespeare’s Macbeth Essay

This extract is from act one scene seven. This is when Macbeth gives his soliloquy on stage, right after Duncan arrives and is invited into their house by Lady Macbeth. The setting is still in Macbeth’s castle at Inverness. He is confused as to whether to kill Duncan or not. This scene is mainly about Macbeth giving his soliloquy where he shows his dilemma on whether he should kill Duncan or not. His wife Lady Macbeth accuses Macbeth of being a coward and that she herself would want to kill Duncan or at least pass on her evil ideas to Macbeth. Macbeth feels very emotional about killing Duncan as he feels that they are kinsmen and that Duncan has high regard for Macbeth. He is also doubtful that they might be caught in the process and that they will be in a worse off situation. Lady Macbeth brainwashes him and at last gets him to listen to her. There is a main theme in this scene that is that whether Macbeth should kill or not kill his king Duncan, who also happened to be his guest. Macbeth’s conscience comes over him and he feels that he should not commit this horrendous deed while his wife teases him about his weakness and cowardice. This is when Macbeth decides once in for all that he will kill Duncan as Macbeth has nothing to argue with Lady Macbeth so he listens to her. Macbeth and Lady Macbeth’s relationship is very strong. Macbeth is a very weak and cowardice man when compared to his wife as she is outgoing and is very strong. Macbeth is a brave and strong warrior but his emotions and his conscience make him very weak and frail. This causes him to have doubts on whether he should kill his king or not. There is a lot of imagery in this scene of the play. First there is all the dark imagery which portrays the evil in the book. There is also Macbeth’s ambition which is portrayed as a horse in the statement â€Å"Vaulting ambition which o’erleaps itself†. There is also some child imagery in the line â€Å"And pity, like a naked newborn babe†. There is once again the reversal of values in the last line â€Å"False face must hide what the false heart doth know†. The dramatic effect in this scene is very high as in most of the other  scenes. There is a heightened suspense of whether Macbeth will choose to kill Duncan or not. The audience is made to believe that Macbeth will not kill Duncan, but Lady Macbeth brainwashes Macbeth towards the end and he decides to kill Duncan and take the throne. This scene should be enacted on a very dark and gloomy setting where there is a lot of echo. This gives the audience the effect of evil in the set. If this scene is performed well the audience will be struck by the seriousness and the suspense of the scene. This scene is very important in the whole play as this scene shows the faithfulness of Macbeth towards Duncan. This scene also shows the good side of Macbeth. The audience is shown that Lady Macbeth was one of the main motives behind pushing Macbeth towards murdering Duncan.

Ariosto essays

Ariosto essays Italian poet, remembered primarily for his ORLANDO FURIOSO, published in its final version in 1532. Ariosto's work was the most celebrated narrative poem of the Italian high Renaissance, and the first example of modern poetry to provoke widespread critical controvesy. Ariosto was born in Reggio Emilia, as the son of Count Niccol Ariosto. At the age of then his family moved to Ferrera, where he studied law from 1489 to1494. There he also started to study Latin and Greek language and literature. When his father died in 1500, Ariosto assumed for some years the management of family estates as the eldest of 10 children. In 1502 he became commander of the fort of Canossa, and the next year he entered the service of Cardidal Ippolito d'Este. In 1513 Ariosto met Alessandra Benucci. After the death of her husband, Tito Strozzi, she became Ariosto's mistress. Because the family had settled comfortably in Ferrara, Ariosto refused to accompany Cardinal d'Este to Hungary, and entered the service of Alfonso I, Duke of Ferrara, Cardinal's brother. In 1522 he was sent to govern the Garfagnana region in the wildest part of the Apuan Alps. He returned after three years from the bandit-ridden post to Ferrara. In about 1505 Arisoto began writing Orlando Furioso. The poem was a continuation of Matteo Maria Boiardo's Orlando innamorato. Its first edition appeared in Venice in 1516 and was later revised in 1521 and 1532. The main character, Orlando, goes mad (furioso) because his love for the beautiful Angelica is not returned. Other themes are the war between Christians and Saracens, and the secondary love story of Ruggiero and Bradamante. Orlando Furioso presented a rich variety of characters, mixed romance, epic, and lyrical poetry, and made fun of outmoded chivalric manners. Later the poem had a profound influence on such poets as Tasso, Spenser, and Lope de Vega. It also fascinated artists, and in the mid-1700s G.B. Tiepolo painted in...

Definition of Criminal Conspiracy

Definition of Criminal Conspiracy A criminal conspiracy takes place when two or more people get together and plan to commit a crime, however, there is more involved when proving that criminal conspiracy has taken place. Intent First, in order for a person to be guilty of criminal conspiracy, they must have actually meant to agree to commit a crime. Next, when the person agreed to commit a crime with others, they must intend to really do whatever the objective is of the conspiracy. For example, Mark asks Daniel to help him  steal a car. Daniel agrees, but really he has decided to contact the police and report what Mark has asked him to do. In this situation, Daniel would not be guilty of criminal conspiracy because he never intended to really help Mark steal the car. Overt Act to Further Conspiracy For a criminal conspiracy to occur, a person must take some action toward carrying out that plan. The action taken does not have to be a crime to further the conspiracy. For example, if two people plan on robbing a bank, but they never take any action towards actually robbing the bank, this could satisfy the criminal conspiracy, however, most states require that there is at least one overt act taken by at least one of the conspirators, for those involved to be charged  with criminal conspiracy. There Does Not Have to Be a Crime The crime of conspiracy can be charged whether or not the crime is ever actually carried out.   For example, if two people plan to rob and bank and they go buy ski masks to wear during the robbery, they can be charged with conspiracy to commit bank robbery, even if they never actually rob the bank or even attempt to rob the bank. Buying ski masks is not a crime, but it furthers the conspiracy to commit a crime. Participation Is Not Required In most states, persons who helped plan the crime, but did not participate in the actual criminal act, can be given the same punishment as the person who carried out the crime itself. The person who commits the crime can be charged with both the crime and conspiracy to commit the crime. One or More Crimes Equals One Conspiracy Charge In criminal conspiracy cases, if the conspiracy involves multiple crimes, those involved will still only be charged with a single act of criminal conspiracy. For example, if Mark and Joe plan to rob a valuable piece of art from someones home, then sell the art on the black market and use the money that they receive to invest in an illegal drug deal, even though they conspired to commit three crimes, they will only be charged one act of criminal conspiracy. Chain and Link Conspiracy A chain and link conspiracy is a conspiracy in which there are a series of transactions, but only one overall agreement.  The different transactions are considered the links in the overall agreement, which is considered the chain.   However, the transactions will only be considered links in a chain if each link is aware that the other links are involved in the conspiracy and each link profits in the success of the overall series of transactions.   For example, Joe smuggles in drugs from Mexico, then sells some of the drugs to Jeff, who then sells it to his street dealer named Milo and Milo sells it to his customers. Joe and Milo have never spoken, therefore there is no agreement between them concerning the selling of the drugs, but because Joe knows that Jeff sells his drugs to a street dealer and Milo knows Jeff buys the drugs from the smuggler, then each of them becomes dependent on the other in order for the entire scheme to work. Wheel and Spoke Conspiracy A wheel-and-spoke conspiracy is when one person acts as the wheel and enters into agreements with different people (the spokes) or co-conspirators who have nothing to do with each other.

One change I would made to Houston Commit y College ( HCC) Essay

One change I would made to Houston Commit y College ( HCC) - Essay Example There is a problem at the Egalitarian office and the root cause must be found and dealt with as soon as possible or the Egalitarian as a training avenue for future journalists will be nothing more than a joke in the near future. In its current state, the Egalitarian does not carry any weight among the student population and its writers, rather than being admired as some of the great thinkers on campus, come across as inept and ill educated when it comes to the finer points of journalism. As students of Houston Community College, it is our duty to try and help improve our school paper as best as we can. We have an obligation to ourselves and our college to ensure that The Egalitarian becomes the embodiment of journalistic integrity and accuracy. At the moment, The Egalitarian is wanting in so many avenues as a mouthpiece for both the college administration and student body. As a part of the training ground for the students of the College of Journalism, it is of the utmost importance t hat the professors and mentors at the department educate their students on the importance of accuracy of content, proper journalistic grammar, and create a diversified topic selection for the paper that represents the student body in a professional manner using a diverse range of topics. The topics covered by the journalism students at the paper is sadly, quite wanting in terms of becoming a true voice for the student body in terms of allowing the students to be equally represented within the pages of the school paper. The topics and news articles written by the members of the staff, and even the contributing writers show a lack of connection with the general student population who are supposed to be the main readers of the paper. The editorials and other columns do not have the ability to spark an intellectual debate among the students either. In fact, the paper is quite boring when one actually bothers to try and read the paper from cover to cover. It is perhaps because of this la ck of professionalism and interesting content from the members of the school paper that the student body chooses to pass on reading the paper when they receive their copies. They do not wish to read a newspaper that does not accurately represent their interests, misrepresents information by using irrelevant or improper information in their articles. The profanity used within the articles and horrible sentence structure, grammar, and punctuation errors within the paper are also unforgivable to any decent journalism or education student of the college who bothers to read the paper. Due to the numerous problems that plague the school paper, most members of the student body and professors alike do not view The Egalitarian as a credible news sources. This negative point of view about the school paper has prevented many aspiring journalists, writers, and educators from contributing interesting and relevant news articles to the publication staff. The lack of professionalism by the members of the newspaper team make them lose their interest in contributing to the school paper. Given such a sentiment, it is quite obvious that the student body does not consider the school paper to be a newspaper that represents the students and their interests. The Egalitarian has the ability to become the platform by which the various college departments can showcase their talents to the student body. Students of graphic arts and the like are